PA State Trooper key terms

The central point a passage communicates about its topic, often stated in a topic sentence or implied across several paragraphs. Identifying it helps you answer questions about the whole text rather than isolated details.

A conclusion drawn from evidence in a passage plus your own reasoning, rather than from a statement written directly. Valid inferences must be supported by textual clues and general knowledge.

A specific fact, example, statistic, or explanation that develops or proves the main idea of a passage. Supporting details answer who, what, when, where, why, or how.

The reason an author writes a text, such as to inform, persuade, entertain, or explain a process. Purpose shapes word choice, structure, and the kinds of details included.

The author's attitude toward the subject or audience, conveyed through word choice and sentence style. Tone may be formal, critical, sympathetic, humorous, or urgent, and it differs from the reader's mood.

A word, phrase, or sentence near an unfamiliar term that helps reveal its meaning. Context clues include definitions, examples, contrasts, and cause-and-effect relationships within the surrounding text.

A fact is a statement that can be verified with evidence; an opinion expresses a belief, feeling, or judgment. Distinguishing them helps you evaluate whether a passage's claims are supported.

A brief restatement of a passage's main points in your own words, leaving out minor details and examples. A good summary preserves the author's meaning and follows the original order of ideas.

The rule that a verb must match its subject in number and person. Singular subjects take singular verbs, and plural subjects take plural verbs, even when words come between them.

The rule that a pronoun must match the noun it refers to in number, gender, and person. Errors occur when a singular antecedent is paired with a plural pronoun or vice versa.

A descriptive word, phrase, or clause placed too far from the word it modifies, creating confusion or unintended meaning. Moving the modifier next to its target usually fixes the sentence.

A modifier whose intended subject is missing from the sentence, so it appears to describe the wrong noun. Rewriting the sentence to name the correct subject resolves the error.

Two independent clauses joined only by a comma, with no coordinating conjunction. It can be corrected with a period, semicolon, or a comma plus a conjunction such as and or but.

Two or more independent clauses run together without correct punctuation or a conjunction. Unlike a comma splice, a run-on may have no punctuation at all between the clauses.

Using the same grammatical form for items in a list, series, or comparison. Parallelism improves clarity and rhythm, as in phrasing all items as verbs or all as nouns.

A sentence construction in which the subject performs the action of the verb, as in 'The officer wrote the report.' Active voice is usually clearer and more direct than passive voice.

One of two or more words that sound alike but have different spellings and meanings, such as their, there, and they're. Correct usage depends on the word's role in the sentence.

A comparison of two quantities by division, often written as a fraction or with a colon, such as 3:4. Ratios show relative size, not necessarily actual counts.

An equation stating that two ratios are equal, such as 3/4 = 6/8. Proportions are solved by cross-multiplying to find an unknown value.

A ratio that compares a number to 100, written with the percent sign. To find a percentage of a quantity, convert the percent to a decimal and multiply.

The arithmetic average of a data set, found by adding all values and dividing by the number of values. The mean is sensitive to extreme values called outliers.

The middle value in a data set arranged in order from least to greatest. If there is an even number of values, the median is the mean of the two middle values.

The agreed sequence for evaluating mathematical expressions: parentheses, exponents, multiplication and division from left to right, then addition and subtraction from left to right.

A rate that compares a quantity to exactly one unit of another quantity, such as miles per hour or cost per item. Unit rates make comparisons between different offers or speeds easier.

The amount of surface enclosed by a two-dimensional shape, measured in square units. Common formulas include length times width for rectangles and one-half base times height for triangles.

A number from 0 to 1 expressing how likely an event is, calculated as favorable outcomes divided by total possible outcomes when outcomes are equally likely.

Drawing a guaranteed conclusion from premises that are assumed true, moving from general rules to specific cases. If the premises are true and the form is valid, the conclusion must be true.

Drawing a probable conclusion from specific observations or patterns, moving from particular examples to a general rule. Inductive conclusions are likely but not guaranteed.

An unstated belief or condition that must be true for an argument's conclusion to follow from its evidence. Identifying assumptions helps you evaluate whether reasoning is sound.

A flaw in reasoning that makes an argument unreliable, even if its conclusion happens to be true. Common fallacies include attacking the person, false dilemmas, and hasty generalizations.

A statement in if-then form, such as 'If it rains, then the ground is wet.' The if-clause is the hypothesis; the then-clause is the conclusion.

A specific case that shows a general statement or rule is false. One valid counterexample is enough to disprove a universal claim such as 'all swans are white.'

A relationship in which one event or condition produces another. Distinguishing true causation from mere correlation requires evidence that the cause actually led to the effect.

The ability to notice specific, small features in a scene, document, or set of facts. It supports accurate reporting and helps identify inconsistencies others might overlook.

Retrieving information from memory without seeing it again, such as writing down a license plate after it is removed from view. Recall is harder than recognition but shows stronger memory.

Identifying previously seen information when it is presented again, such as choosing a suspect from a lineup. Recognition is generally easier than free recall because cues are provided.

A tendency to interpret ambiguous information according to expectations, prior experience, or context. It can cause observers to miss details or see what they expect rather than what is present.

Recording observations, statements, and actions accurately and promptly in notes or reports. Good documentation is factual, chronological, and specific enough to support later review or testimony.