Firstwords cheat sheet

Context clues: definition (often after 'is' or 'means'), example ('such as', 'for instance'), contrast ('but', 'however', 'unlike'), and inference (cause-effect, general sense).

Prefixes: un-/in-/im-/il-/ir- = not; re- = again; pre- = before; post- = after; sub- = under; super- = above; inter- = between; intra- = within; anti- = against; auto- = self; bio- = life; geo- = earth; tele- = far; micro- = small; macro- = large; mono- = one; poly- = many.

Suffixes: -tion/-sion = act/state; -ment = result/state; -ness = quality; -able/-ible = capable of; -ful = full of; -less = without; -ous = full of; -ify = make; -ize = make; -logy = study of; -phobia = fear; -graph = write; -port = carry; -scrib = write; -spect = look; -struct = build; -tract = pull.

Synonyms: words with similar meanings; choose the one that fits the sentence's connotation (positive/negative/neutral) and register (formal/informal).

Antonyms: words with opposite meanings; use contrast clues ('but', 'although', 'yet', 'on the other hand') to identify them.

Homonyms: same spelling or pronunciation but different meanings (e.g., 'bear' animal vs. 'bear' carry); use sentence context to disambiguate.

Word families: learn the noun, verb, adjective, and adverb forms together (e.g., decide, decision, decisive, decisively) to recognize meaning across parts of speech.

Connotation vs. denotation: denotation is the dictionary meaning; connotation is the emotional association (e.g., 'cheap' vs. 'affordable').

Subject-verb agreement: singular subject takes singular verb; plural subject takes plural verb. Ignore prepositional phrases between subject and verb (e.g., 'The box of apples is heavy').

Pronoun-antecedent agreement: pronoun must match antecedent in number, gender, and person (e.g., 'Each student must bring his or her book').

Verb tense consistency: maintain the same tense within a sentence unless a time shift is signaled (e.g., 'She said she was tired').

Sentence types: simple (one independent clause), compound (two independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunction), complex (independent + dependent clause), compound-complex (two independent + at least one dependent).

Run-on sentences: two independent clauses without proper punctuation or conjunction; fix with a period, semicolon, or comma + coordinating conjunction.

Comma rules: use commas to separate items in a list, after introductory phrases, around nonessential clauses, and before coordinating conjunctions joining independent clauses.

Modifier placement: place adjectives, adverbs, and phrases as close as possible to the word they modify to avoid ambiguity (e.g., 'She almost ran five miles' vs. 'She ran almost five miles').

Parallel structure: items in a list or comparison must have the same grammatical form (e.g., 'reading, writing, and arithmetic' not 'reading, writing, and to do arithmetic').

Active vs. passive voice: active voice is usually clearer and more direct; passive voice is useful when the doer is unknown or unimportant.

Main idea: the central point of a passage; often stated in the first or last sentence of a paragraph or passage; ask 'What is this mostly about?'

Supporting details: facts, examples, or reasons that explain or prove the main idea; they answer who, what, when, where, why, or how.

Inference: a conclusion drawn from evidence in the text plus logical reasoning; it is not stated directly but is strongly implied.

Author's purpose: to inform, persuade, entertain, or instruct; identify by analyzing the tone, evidence, and language used.

Tone: the author's attitude toward the subject (e.g., optimistic, critical, humorous); identify through word choice and imagery.

Fact vs. opinion: facts can be verified; opinions express beliefs, feelings, or judgments and often include evaluative words (e.g., 'best', 'should').

Sequence and cause-effect: recognize chronological order (first, next, then, finally) and causal relationships (because, therefore, as a result).

Compare and contrast: identify similarities and differences using signal words (like, similarly, unlike, whereas, on the other hand).

Vocabulary in context: determine the meaning of an unfamiliar word by examining surrounding words, sentence structure, and overall passage meaning.

Listen for main idea: focus on the speaker's opening and closing statements, which often summarize the topic.

Note-taking: use abbreviations, symbols, and keywords; record numbers, names, dates, and sequence words (first, then, finally).

Identify purpose: determine whether the speaker is informing, persuading, explaining, or narrating; listen for cues like 'I believe', 'The steps are', 'Once upon a time'.

Recognize signpost words: 'however', 'therefore', 'in addition', 'for example', 'on the other hand' signal relationships between ideas.

Inference in listening: use tone of voice, stress, and intonation to infer meaning beyond the literal words (e.g., sarcasm, hesitation).

Distinguish fact from opinion: listen for evaluative language ('should', 'best', 'terrible') versus verifiable statements.

Follow multi-step instructions: mentally sequence the steps and note any conditional words ('if', 'unless', 'before', 'after').

Identify speaker attitude: pay attention to adjectives, adverbs, and vocal cues that reveal feelings (enthusiasm, concern, frustration).

Answering questions: read the question before listening when possible; listen for specific details and eliminate options that contradict the audio.