CAAP PPL Knowledge Exam cheat sheet

In the Philippines, the Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines (CAAP) issues pilot licences under the Philippine Civil Aviation Regulations (PCAR), which mirror ICAO Annexes; PCAR Part 2 covers licensing, Part 8 operations, Part 7 instruments and equipment.

A Private Pilot Licence (Aeroplane) requires a minimum of 40 hours total flight time under PCAR Part 2, including at least 10 hours solo (of which at least 5 hours solo cross-country) and 20 hours dual instruction; verify current PCAR amendments before relying on exact figures.

Privileges of a PPL: act as pilot-in-command or co-pilot of an aeroplane engaged in non-revenue flights, carry passengers, but not for compensation or hire; no flying for remuneration or in operations requiring a CPL.

Class 2 medical certificate is the minimum for PPL; it must be valid on the day of flight. Class 1 is required for commercial operations. Medical validity periods vary with age and licence type under PCAR Part 2.

A pilot must carry licence, medical certificate, and logbook (or equivalent record) when exercising privileges; aircraft documents required on board include Certificate of Registration, Certificate of Airworthiness, and the aircraft radio station licence.

Right-of-way rules: aircraft in distress have priority; converging at same level, the aircraft with the other on its right has right-of-way; head-on both turn right; overtaking aircraft keeps clear to the right; landing aircraft on final approach has priority over aircraft on ground.

VFR weather minima in controlled airspace (ICAO/PCAR): flight visibility at least 5 km and cloud separation 1,000 ft vertically and 1,500 m horizontally at and above 10,000 ft AMSL; below 10,000 ft, 5 km visibility and 1,000 ft/1,500 m separation unless otherwise specified.

Semi-circular rule for IFR/VFR cruising levels: magnetic tracks 000-179 use odd thousands (e.g., 3,500, 5,500 ft), tracks 180-359 use even thousands (e.g., 4,500, 6,500 ft); VFR at or above 3,000 ft AGL uses 500 ft increments.

Aircraft must be operated with a valid Certificate of Airworthiness and within the approved flight manual limitations; maintenance must follow an approved programme, and the pilot is responsible for confirming airworthiness before flight (pre-flight inspection, documents, defects).

Four-stroke cycle: induction, compression, combustion (power), exhaust. In a horizontally opposed piston engine, the camshaft opens each intake and exhaust valve once per two crankshaft revolutions.

Carburettor icing is most likely at ambient temperatures between about -7°C and +21°C with high relative humidity; apply carburettor heat before ice forms, as heat enriches the mixture and can cause a temporary power drop.

The magneto provides self-contained ignition; a dead-cut check (both mags off) must show RPM drop and engine cessation. A mag check drop of more than about 150 RPM or rough running indicates a problem.

Fuel/air mixture: lean for altitude and cruise to maintain EGT/CHT within limits; full rich for take-off and climb at low altitude. Detonation is uncontrolled rapid combustion; pre-ignition is ignition before the spark.

Electrical system: battery, alternator/generator, voltage regulator, master switch, and bus. The ammeter/loadmeter shows charge or load; a failed alternator leaves battery-only operation for a limited time.

Pitot-static instruments: airspeed indicator (dynamic pressure), altimeter (static pressure), vertical speed indicator (rate of static pressure change). Blocked pitot affects ASI; blocked static affects ASI, altimeter and VSI.

The altimeter must be set to the local QNH for elevation above mean sea level; QFE gives height above a reference point; standard pressure 1013.25 hPa/29.92 inHg is used above the transition altitude for flight levels.

Gyroscopic instruments: attitude indicator and heading indicator use rigidity in space (vacuum or electric), turn coordinator/turn-and-slip uses precession; the heading indicator requires periodic alignment with the magnetic compass.

The magnetic compass is subject to variation (geographic), deviation (aircraft), and turning/dip errors; acceleration error shows a turn to the north in the Northern Hemisphere during acceleration, and to the south during deceleration.

Mass and balance: total mass = empty mass + crew + passengers + baggage + fuel + oil. The centre of gravity must remain within the forward and aft limits for all phases of flight, including zero-fuel mass.

Moment = mass × arm (distance from datum). CG position = total moment ÷ total mass. Use the loading graph or table in the flight manual and verify the CG stays within limits after fuel burn.

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 × (OAT − ISA temperature). High density altitude reduces engine power, propeller thrust and lift, increasing take-off and landing distances.

Take-off distance increases with mass, altitude, temperature, headwind component decrease, and upslope. Landing distance increases with mass, altitude, temperature, tailwind, downslope, and poor braking action.

V-speeds: Vx best angle of climb (obstacle clearance), Vy best rate of climb, Vne never exceed, Va design manoeuvring speed (turbulence penetration), Vfe flap extension, Vs stall speed.

Fuel planning: calculate trip fuel, taxi, contingency (typically 5% or as specified), alternate fuel, and final reserve (e.g., 30 minutes VFR by day under PCAR). Convert volume to mass using fuel density (avgas ~0.72 kg/L).

Crosswind component = wind speed × sin(angle between wind and runway); headwind component = wind speed × cos(angle). Check the crosswind against the aircraft's demonstrated limit before take-off.

Take-off and landing performance charts use pressure altitude, temperature, mass, wind, and surface condition; interpolate between tabulated values and apply safety factors as required by the operator or flight manual.

Hypoxia: insufficient oxygen to tissues. Symptoms include euphoria, impaired judgement, cyanosis, and headache. Time of useful consciousness at 25,000 ft is roughly 3-5 minutes; at 40,000 ft, 15-20 seconds.

Hyperventilation causes dizziness, tingling and muscle spasms from excessive CO2 elimination; treatment is controlled breathing, reassurance, and if suspected hypoxia at altitude, use supplemental oxygen.

Spatial disorientation: illusions such as the leans, graveyard spiral, and somatogravic illusion occur when visual references are lost; trust the instruments and maintain a scan.

Decompression sickness (the bends) results from dissolved nitrogen forming bubbles on rapid decompression or after diving; avoid flying too soon after scuba diving (typically 24 hours).

Cabin altitude above 10,000 ft requires supplemental oxygen for crew; above 14,000 ft for passengers; above 8,000 ft for prolonged periods, oxygen should be available.

Fatigue and circadian rhythm: alertness is lowest around 03:00-06:00 and 15:00-17:00 body time; duty and rest limits exist under PCAR Part 8, and alcohol must not be consumed within 8 hours of flight.

The eye: rods are sensitive to low light and located in the periphery; cones provide colour and detail in the fovea. At night, use off-centre viewing and allow 30 minutes for dark adaptation.

Stress and workload: high arousal can degrade performance; use prioritisation, checklist discipline, and the DECIDE model for aeronautical decision making. Human error is managed through CRM and threat and error management.

ISA: sea-level temperature 15°C, pressure 1013.25 hPa, lapse rate 1.98°C per 1,000 ft up to 11 km (tropopause), then isothermal. Standard atmosphere is used for pressure altitude and performance calculations.

QNH is the pressure reduced to sea level; QFE is station pressure; QNE is standard 1013.25 hPa. Altimeter set to QNH reads elevation; set to 1013.25 hPa reads pressure altitude/flight level.

Cloud types: cumulus (convective, unstable), stratus (layered, stable), cirrus (high, ice), cumulonimbus (thunderstorm, severe turbulence, icing, hail, microburst).

Stability: stable air produces layered cloud and steady precipitation; unstable air produces showery precipitation, cumuliform cloud, and turbulence. Lapse rate greater than the saturated adiabatic rate indicates instability.

Icing: clear ice from large supercooled droplets (most dangerous), rime ice from small droplets, mixed ice. Structural icing increases mass and drag and reduces lift; pitot heat and carburettor heat are anti-icing tools.

Thunderstorms require moisture, instability, and a lifting trigger. Stages: cumulus, mature (updrafts and downdrafts, lightning, hail), dissipating. Avoid by at least 20 nm and do not fly beneath the anvil.

Wind: surface friction causes wind to back and decrease near the surface; veering means clockwise shift, backing means anticlockwise. In the Northern Hemisphere, wind around a low is anticlockwise.

METAR/TAF: METAR is an observation (wind, visibility, weather, cloud, temperature, dewpoint, QNH); TAF is a forecast. SPECI is a special observation. Decode e.g. 27015G25KT as wind 270° at 15 kt gusting 25 kt.

Fog types: radiation fog (clear night, light wind, high humidity, forms near dawn), advection fog (warm moist air over cold surface), upslope fog, and frontal fog. Dewpoint spread close to zero indicates high fog risk.

True north is the geographic pole; magnetic north is where the compass points. Variation is the angle between them (east variation: magnetic track = true track − variation). Deviation is aircraft-specific.

A nautical mile is 1,852 m; 1 minute of latitude equals 1 nm. A knot is 1 nm/h. 1 statute mile ≈ 0.87 nm; 1 m/s ≈ 1.94 kt.

Time = distance ÷ groundspeed. Fuel = fuel flow × time. Track is the intended path over the ground; heading is the direction the aircraft points; drift = track − heading.

The 1-in-60 rule: a 1° error over 60 nm equals 1 nm off track. Use this to compute closing angles and heading corrections.

Wind triangle: TAS and heading produce the air vector; wind produces the wind vector; the resultant is groundspeed and track. Use the CR-3 or E6B computer and check with mental estimates.

Great circle is the shortest path between two points on the globe; rhumb line is a constant track. On a Mercator chart, great circles appear as curved lines; on a Lambert conformal conic, straight lines approximate great circles.

Position fixes: visual landmarks, VOR/DME radial-distance, NDB bearing, GPS, and dead reckoning. Always maintain a navigation log with time, heading, and fuel checks.

Magnetic heading = true heading + easterly variation (or − westerly). Compass heading = magnetic heading + easterly deviation (or − westerly). Apply corrections in the correct order.

Pre-flight: check documents (registration, C of A, radio licence, mass and balance, maintenance release), weather, NOTAMs, fuel, and aircraft condition; complete a walk-around and check controls free and correct.

Before take-off: complete the run-up (mag check, carb heat check, oil pressure/temperature, suction, alternator), set trim, brief the departure, and confirm take-off clearance and runway.

Emergency: engine failure after take-off - pitch for best glide, select a landing area, attempt restart, and land. Mayday calls use the distress phrase; urgency calls use Pan-Pan.

Radio failure in VFR: squawk 7600, continue VFR, remain clear of controlled airspace unless previously cleared, and land at the nearest suitable aerodrome; try alternate frequencies and use light signals.

Wake turbulence: generated by wingtip vortices, strongest when heavy, clean and slow. Take off before the preceding aircraft's rotation point and land after its touchdown point; stay above its flight path.

Wind shear and microburst: sudden change in wind speed/direction; escape by applying maximum thrust, pitching to the go-around attitude, and not changing configuration until clear of the shear.

Fire: engine fire - shut off fuel, mixture, and electrics as appropriate, use the extinguisher, and land as soon as possible. Cabin fire - use the extinguisher and land immediately.

Checklists: use the appropriate normal, abnormal, and emergency checklist; the pilot flying and pilot monitoring divide tasks; do not rely on memory for critical items except immediate-action memory items.

Four forces: lift, weight, thrust, drag. In steady level flight, lift = weight and thrust = drag. Lift = ½ρV²SCL; induced drag decreases with speed while parasite drag increases with speed.

Angle of attack (AoA) is the angle between the chord line and the relative airflow. The critical AoA produces CLmax; a stall occurs when AoA exceeds the critical angle regardless of speed, attitude, or mass.

The stall speed increases with mass (Vs ∝ √mass), with load factor (Vs ∝ √n), and with altitude (true airspeed increases while indicated stall speed stays roughly constant).

Load factor n = lift/weight. A level 60° bank gives n = 2 and raises stall speed by about 41%. The V-n diagram limits manoeuvring and gust loads.

Bernoulli and Newton: the wing accelerates air downward and the pressure on the upper surface is lower than on the lower surface; both circulation and momentum change explain lift.

Stability: positive static stability means a disturbance produces a restoring force. Dihedral gives lateral stability; the horizontal tail gives longitudinal stability; the vertical fin gives directional stability.

Adverse yaw: the descending aileron produces more induced drag, yawing the aircraft away from the turn; coordinate with rudder. Aileron reversal and wing drop at the stall are related effects.

Ground effect occurs within about one wingspan of the ground: induced drag decreases and lift increases for the same AoA, so the aircraft may float and requires a firmer landing attitude.

Flaps increase lift and drag and lower the stall speed; they also shift the centre of pressure and can produce a pitch change. Spoilers reduce lift and increase drag.

Standard call: station called, station calling, position, altitude, intentions. Example: "Tower, Cessna One Two Three Alpha Bravo, five miles south, 2,500 feet, inbound for landing, information Bravo."

Read-back is required for clearances, runway assignments, hold-short instructions, altimeter settings, and frequency changes. If unsure, say "Say again" rather than guess.

Distress: "Mayday, Mayday, Mayday" followed by callsign, nature, position, altitude, intentions. Urgency: "Pan-Pan, Pan-Pan, Pan-Pan" for a serious but non-immediate situation.

Phonetic alphabet: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.

Numbers are spoken digit by digit: 123.5 as "one two three decimal five"; headings as "heading zero nine zero"; altitudes as "two thousand five hundred feet".

Squawk codes: 7700 emergency, 7600 radio failure, 7500 unlawful interference. Mode C gives pressure altitude; ATC may ask "squawk ident" to activate the ident feature.

Light signals: steady green = cleared to land/continue; flashing green = cleared to taxi; steady red = stop; flashing red = taxi clear of runway; alternating red/green = exercise caution; flashing white = return to start.

VFR position reporting: use the standard "position, time, altitude, next position and ETA" format; at uncontrolled aerodromes use the CTAF and announce downwind, base, final, and clear of runway.

VOR: 108.0-117.95 MHz, line-of-sight, gives a magnetic bearing (radial) from the station; CDI centres when the OBS is set to the desired radial. TO/FROM indicates whether the selected course leads to or from the station.

NDB/ADF: 190-535 kHz (NDB) with ADF bearing relative to the aircraft; relative bearing + heading = magnetic bearing to the station. Susceptible to night effect, static, and coastal refraction.

DME: paired with VOR or ILS, measures slant range in nautical miles; ground speed and time-to-station are derived. Slant range error is greatest at high altitude and close to the station.

ILS: localizer (108-112 MHz) gives lateral guidance; glideslope (329.15-335 MHz) gives vertical guidance, typically 3°. Marker beacons (outer, middle, inner) and DME provide distance fixes.

GPS: satellite-based, gives position, track, groundspeed, and time; RAIM monitors integrity. The receiver must be approved for the operation, and traditional navigation skills remain a fallback.

Transponder and altimetry: Mode C reports pressure altitude; the pilot must set the correct QNH so ATC's displayed altitude matches. Squawk assigned codes as directed.

Radar: primary radar uses reflected pulses; secondary surveillance radar (SSR) interrogates the transponder. ATC separation uses radar identification and Mode C altitude.

Radio propagation: VHF is line-of-sight, range roughly 1.23 × √height in feet for a transmitter and receiver at the same height; HF is used for long-range communication.