PTLE cheat sheet

Purposive communication: communication is a transactional process; the Shannon–Weaver model is linear (sender→message→channel→receiver), while Schramm adds feedback and field of experience.

Grammar decision rule: use "fewer" with countable nouns and "less" with mass nouns; use "between" for two items and "among" for three or more.

Subject–verb agreement: intervening prepositional phrases do not change the verb; "each, every, either, neither, everyone" take singular verbs.

Reading comprehension levels: literal (stated facts), inferential (implied meaning), critical/evaluative (judging validity, bias, and argument).

Philippine history markers: 1521 Magellan arrival, 1872 Gomburza execution, 1896 Katipunan revolution, 1898 Declaration of Independence in Kawit, 1935 Commonwealth.

Mathematics: percentage = (part ÷ whole) × 100; average = sum ÷ number of items; probability of an event = favorable outcomes ÷ total outcomes.

Logic: converse swaps subject and predicate; inverse negates both; contrapositive negates and swaps - only the contrapositive is logically equivalent to the original.

Science literacy: photosynthesis converts light energy to chemical energy in glucose; cellular respiration releases that energy as ATP in mitochondria.

Piaget's stages: sensorimotor (0–2), preoperational (2–7), concrete operational (7–11, conservation and classification), formal operational (11+, abstract reasoning).

Vygotsky: the Zone of Proximal Development is the gap between independent performance and assisted performance; scaffolding is temporary support faded as competence grows.

Bloom's revised taxonomy order: Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, Create - verbs in objectives signal the intended level.

Kohlberg's moral stages: pre-conventional (punishment/obedience, self-interest), conventional (approval, law and order), post-conventional (social contract, universal principles).

Constructivism holds that learners build knowledge from prior experience; behaviorism explains learning through stimulus–response and reinforcement (operant conditioning).

Assessment types: formative is ongoing and diagnostic for feedback; summative measures achievement at the end; criterion-referenced compares to a standard, norm-referenced to peers.

Test item quality: difficulty index = proportion answering correctly; discrimination index compares high- and low-scoring groups; a distractor chosen by no one is nonfunctional.

Philippine legal bases: 1987 Constitution Art. XIV, RA 10533 (K–12 Enhanced Basic Education Act), RA 9155 (Governance of Basic Education Act), and the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers.

Language teaching: Krashen's input hypothesis requires comprehensible input (i+1); the affective filter hypothesis links anxiety and low motivation to reduced acquisition.

Communicative competence (Canale and Swain): grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competence.

Literature analysis elements: plot, character, setting, conflict, theme, point of view, and style; theme is the central insight, not the topic.

Language acquisition vs learning (Krashen): acquisition is subconscious and meaning-focused; learning is conscious rule study and does not automatically produce fluency.

Teaching reading: skimming for gist, scanning for specific detail, and inference for unstated meaning are distinct skills tested separately.

Writing assessment: analytic rubrics score traits separately (content, organization, grammar, mechanics); holistic rubrics assign one overall score.

Second-language error analysis separates interlingual errors (L1 interference) from intralingual errors (overgeneralization of target-language rules).

Lesson planning for language: state a measurable objective, activate schema, present the target language in context, provide guided practice, then independent production.