PCAA Navigation cheat sheet

ICAO Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention, 1944) established ICAO and its 19 Annexes; Annex 1 covers personnel licensing, Annex 2 Rules of the Air, Annex 11 Air Traffic Services, Annex 14 Aerodromes, Annex 15 Aeronautical Information Services.

ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs): Standards are mandatory ("shall") for member states to implement; Recommended Practices are desirable ("should"); differences must be filed with ICAO via Article 38 notification.

Sovereignty over national airspace is complete and exclusive (Article 1); non-scheduled civil aircraft have the right of non-stop overflight and landing for non-traffic purposes under Article 5, subject to state permission.

Freedom of the air: first (overflight), second (technical stop), third (disembark in another state), fourth (embark in another state), fifth (carry traffic between two third states on a through service) - fifth freedom requires bilateral agreement.

Annex 2 Rules of the Air: VFR visibility minima and cloud clearance vary by airspace class; controlled airspace classes A–E require ATC clearance; class F/G are uncontrolled with reduced requirements.

Flight rules: VFR requires visual meteorological conditions (VMC); special VFR may be permitted in control zones with ATC clearance; IFR requires instrument approach and separation.

Licence validity: Annex 1 defines PPL, CPL, ATPL, instrument rating; medical class 1 for commercial pilots, class 2 for PPL; validity periods set by state regulation.

Aircraft nationality marks and registration (Annex 7) must be displayed; certificate of airworthiness (Annex 8) and crew licences (Annex 1) are the baseline documents for international flight.

Great-circle distance formula: d = R·arccos(sin φ1 sin φ2 + cos φ1 cos φ2 cos Δλ), where R ≈ 3440 NM (Earth radius); use for long-haul route planning.

Initial great-circle bearing: θ = atan2(sin Δλ·cos φ2, cos φ1·sin φ2 − sin φ1·cos φ2·cos Δλ); convert to true bearing and apply magnetic variation for magnetic heading.

Mercator projection: rhumb lines are straight, great circles are curved; scale increases with latitude by sec φ; not suitable for polar navigation.

Lambert conformal conic: conformal, used for mid-latitude charts; great circles are near-straight lines; scale constant along a standard parallel.

1 minute of latitude ≈ 1 NM; 1 minute of longitude = cos φ NM; use these for quick position and distance estimates.

True airspeed from indicated: TAS ≈ IAS × (1 + altitude/1000 × 0.02) as a rule of thumb; more accurately use density ratio: TAS = IAS / √(ρ/ρ0).

Fuel planning: trip fuel + contingency (typically 5% of trip) + alternate fuel + final reserve (30 min holding at 1500 ft) + taxi fuel; ETOPS adds en-route alternate considerations.

Wind triangle: heading = track ± drift; drift = arcsin((W/V)·sin(WA)); ground speed = V·cos(drift) + W·cos(WA); compute for each leg.

VOR: 108.0–117.95 MHz, 50 kHz spacing; radial = magnetic bearing from station; accuracy ±1°–2°; line-of-sight, range ≈ 1.23√h (NM, h in ft).

NDB/ADF: 190–1750 kHz (NDB typically 200–535 kHz); bearing is relative to aircraft heading; susceptible to night effect, coastal refraction, and thunderstorm static.

DME: UHF 960–1215 MHz; slant range (not ground distance); accuracy ±0.25 NM + 0.0125% of distance; paired with VOR/TACAN; ground speed and ETA computed by receiver.

ILS: localizer (108.10–111.95 MHz, 90 Hz/150 Hz modulation) provides lateral guidance; glideslope (329.15–335 MHz) provides vertical; markers at OM (typically 4–7 NM), MM, IM; CAT I DH ≥200 ft, CAT II ≥100 ft, CAT III autoland.

GNSS/GPS: L1 1575.42 MHz; position from pseudorange to ≥4 satellites; RAIM detects faults; SBAS (WAAS/EGNOS) improves integrity; GBAS supports precision approach.

RNAV/RNP: PBN specification; RNP requires on-board performance monitoring and alerting; typical RNP 0.3 en-route terminal, RNP 0.1 approach; RNAV 1/2 for terminal/en-route.

Radar: primary radar range ∝ √(h); secondary surveillance radar (SSR) uses transponder replies; Mode S provides unique aircraft address and selective interrogation.

Approach minima: DA/DH for precision approaches; MDA for non-precision; missed approach point (MAPt) at DA or at a defined fix/time.

Separation minima: 5 NM radar separation in terminal areas, 3 NM in some TMAs with approved systems; vertical separation 1000 ft below FL410, 2000 ft above (RVSM airspace).

RVSM: applies FL290–FL410; aircraft must be approved, altimetry accurate to ±200 ft, and equipped with TCAS II; non-RVSM aircraft require special handling.

Wake turbulence separation: heavy/super behind heavy, medium behind heavy, light behind medium/heavy; typically 4–6 NM depending on category and phase.

Reduced vertical separation minima (RVSM) and reduced horizontal separation (RNP/RNAV) increase airspace capacity; required navigation performance and communication/surveillance specifications determine eligibility.

Airspace classes: A (IFR only, all separated), B (IFR and VFR, all separated), C (IFR/VFR, VFR separated from IFR), D (IFR/VFR, traffic information), E (IFR controlled, VFR not separated), F/G uncontrolled.

Holding: standard turns right, 1-minute legs below FL140, 1.5-minute above; entry via direct, parallel, or teardrop based on inbound course and heading.

Flow control and ATFM: slot allocation, ground delay programs, and metering manage demand; departure slots must be respected within a window.

Emergency: 7700 transponder, 121.5 MHz guard; distress vs urgency (MAYDAY vs PAN PAN); ATC priority and separation of emergency traffic.

VHF voice: 118.000–136.975 MHz, 25 kHz or 8.33 kHz channel spacing (Europe mandates 8.33 kHz above FL195); line-of-sight range ≈ 1.23√h (NM).

HF voice: 3–30 MHz for oceanic/remote; day/night frequency selection based on ionospheric propagation; SELCAL for selective calling.

CPDLC: data link replacing voice for oceanic and some continental airspace; uses FANS-1/A or ATN; logon required before entering data-link airspace.

ADS-B: aircraft broadcasts position, velocity and identity; 1090 MHz extended squitter; ADS-B Out mandated in many airspaces; ADS-C for oceanic surveillance via contract.

TCAS II: interrogates Mode C/S transponders; Traffic Advisories (TA) and Resolution Advisories (RA); RA must be followed unless it conflicts with safety; TCAS II version 7.1 required in many regions.

SATCOM: voice and data for oceanic and remote areas; used for ADS-C, CPDLC, and voice; latency and coverage considerations.

RNP/RNAV: PBN navigation specifications define accuracy, integrity, continuity, availability; ADS-B and GNSS underpin performance-based navigation.

Surveillance: primary radar (position only), SSR (identity, altitude), Mode S (unique address, data link), ADS-B (broadcast), multilateration (MLAT) using time difference of arrival.

ISA: sea level 15 °C, 1013.25 hPa; lapse rate 1.98 °C/1000 ft up to tropopause (~36,090 ft); pressure decreases ~1 hPa per 27 ft near sea level.

Altimetry: QNH = pressure at sea level; QFE = pressure at aerodrome; QNE = standard 1013.25 hPa; transition altitude/level separate QNH and standard settings; altimeter errors from temperature and pressure.

Wind: geostrophic wind parallel to isobars; surface friction causes backing (veer with altitude in Northern Hemisphere); jet streams at tropopause, 100+ kt.

Cloud types: cumulonimbus (CB) associated with thunderstorms, icing, turbulence, microbursts; avoid by ≥20 NM; icing risk greatest at 0 to −20 °C in visible moisture.

Thunderstorms: required ingredients - moisture, instability, lifting mechanism; stages cumulus, mature, dissipating; hazards include hail, lightning, wind shear, downbursts, tornadoes.

Fog: radiation fog forms on clear calm nights; advection fog forms when warm moist air moves over cold surface; visibility minima determine approach category.

METAR/TAF: METAR routine observation; TAF forecast; trend forecasts; SPECI special; decode wind, visibility, cloud, temperature, QNH, and significant weather.

Icing and turbulence: airframe icing types rime, clear, mixed; use anti-ice/de-ice; turbulence categories light, moderate, severe, extreme; PIREPs and SIGMETs advise.

AIP: Aeronautical Information Publication, permanent information; changes via AIP amendments and NOTAM for temporary changes; AIRAC cycle 28 days.

NOTAM: coded notice of temporary or permanent changes; classes A (international) and B (domestic); valid from/until; use for runway closures, navaid outages, obstacles.

Charts: en-route (low/high altitude), terminal area (TMA), approach (IAC), SID/STAR, aerodrome (AIP), and obstacle charts; scale and projection specified on each chart.

Approach chart elements: plan view, profile view, minima table, missed approach, communication and navaid frequencies, transition level and altitudes.

AIRAC: effective dates every 28 days; data must be current; operators must update FMS/navigation databases accordingly.

Chart symbols: navaids, fixes (waypoints), airways, airspace boundaries, minimum safe altitudes (MSA), terrain, obstacles, and holding patterns.

AIS products: AIP, AIP supplements, AIC (Aeronautical Information Circular), NOTAM, PIB (pre-flight information bulletin), and digital datasets (AIXM).

Obstacle clearance: MSA gives 1000 ft (or 2000 ft in mountainous terrain) clearance within 25 NM of a navaid; MOCA gives obstacle clearance along airway.

ICAO SMS four pillars: safety policy and objectives, safety risk management, safety assurance, safety promotion; documented in Annex 19.

Risk assessment: likelihood × severity matrix; hazards identified, risks assessed, mitigations applied, residual risk accepted; ALARP (as low as reasonably practicable) principle.

Just culture: distinguishes human error (non-punitive) from reckless behavior (disciplinary); encourages reporting; supports safety data collection.

Human factors: SHELL model (Software, Hardware, Environment, Liveware); error types slips, lapses, mistakes, violations; fatigue, stress, and situational awareness affect performance.

Threat and Error Management (TEM): anticipate threats, trap errors, manage undesired aircraft states; used in LOSA and line audits.

Safety performance indicators (SPIs) and targets (SPTs) measure SMS effectiveness; occurrence reporting and safety data analysis feed risk management.

Crew resource management (CRM): communication, leadership, workload management, decision-making; briefings and callouts reduce error.

Fatigue risk management: flight time limitations, rest requirements, circadian effects; fatigue impairs vigilance and reaction time.