Praxis ESOL cheat sheet

A phoneme is the smallest sound unit that distinguishes meaning in a language; an allophone is a non-meaning-distinguishing variant of a phoneme.

A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit; free morphemes stand alone, while bound morphemes must attach to another morpheme.

Derivational morphemes typically change a word's meaning or grammatical category; inflectional morphemes encode grammatical information such as tense, number, or case.

English basic word order is subject-verb-object; syntax also governs phrase structure, agreement, and embedded clause formation.

Semantics concerns literal meaning; pragmatics concerns how context, intent, and social conventions shape meaning in use.

Cognates share form and meaning across languages due to common ancestry; false cognates look similar but differ in meaning.

Register varies by audience, purpose, and setting; academic language features specialized vocabulary, nominalization, and complex syntax.

Language transfer occurs when L1 knowledge influences L2 performance; positive transfer supports accuracy and negative transfer produces interference.

Comprehensible input is language slightly beyond the learner's current level, often modeled as i+1, made understandable through context, visuals, or simplification.

The affective filter describes emotional factors such as anxiety or low motivation that can reduce a learner's uptake of comprehensible input.

The output hypothesis holds that producing language pushes learners to notice gaps and test hypotheses about the target language.

The interaction hypothesis holds that negotiation of meaning and corrective feedback during interaction support second-language development.

BICS refers to conversational fluency, often developing in about two years; CALP refers to academic language proficiency, often taking five to seven years.

Interlanguage is a learner's evolving rule system, containing target-like forms, developmental errors, and influences from the first language.

Fossilization is the persistence of non-target forms in interlanguage despite continued exposure or instruction.

L2 morpheme order is often similar to but not identical with L1 order; instruction and L1 background can affect accuracy and timing.

Sheltered instruction teaches grade-level content in English with language supports rather than replacing content with simplified curriculum.

The SIOP framework includes content and language objectives, building background, comprehensible input, interaction, practice/application, lesson delivery, and review/assessment.

A language objective states an observable language function, vocabulary set, or structure students will use to demonstrate content learning.

Scaffolding is temporary support such as modeling, graphic organizers, sentence frames, or gradual release that is faded as learners gain independence.

Cooperative learning uses small heterogeneous groups with structured roles, shared goals, and individual accountability.

WIDA English language development levels range from 1 Entering to 6 Reaching and can guide differentiation of tasks, texts, and supports.

Program models include pull-out ESL, push-in or co-taught ESL, sheltered content, and dual language; selection depends on student needs and available resources.

Effective classroom management for English learners includes predictable routines, clear directions, visual cues, and adequate wait time.

Formative assessment occurs during instruction to inform teaching and feedback; summative assessment occurs after instruction to measure achievement or proficiency.

Validity is the degree to which an assessment measures the intended construct and supports the intended score interpretations and decisions.

Reliability is the consistency of scores across tasks, occasions, and raters; unreliable scores cannot support strong validity claims.

Accommodations remove barriers without changing the construct being measured, such as extended time or a bilingual glossary; modifications change the construct.

Language proficiency and content knowledge should be scored separately when possible so that grammar errors do not mask content understanding.

Analytic rubrics score separate criteria and support detailed feedback; holistic rubrics assign one overall score based on the whole performance.

The standard error of measurement estimates score variability and supports confidence bands around an observed score.

Dynamic assessment uses a test-teach-retest cycle to measure what a learner can do with support, reflecting the zone of proximal development.

Culture is learned, shared, dynamic, and internally variable; treating cultures as fixed or homogeneous produces essentialism and miscommunication.

Culturally responsive teaching incorporates students' cultural references, experiences, and perspectives while maintaining high expectations.

Funds of knowledge are skills and knowledge developed in households and communities that teachers can connect to school learning.

Equity provides supports and resources according to students' needs so all learners can access the same high-level learning goals.

Lau v. Nichols (1974) requires meaningful education for English learners and rejected simply placing them in English-only classes without support.

The Castañeda standard (1981) requires bilingual education programs to be based on sound theory, implemented effectively, and evaluated for effectiveness.

Family engagement is strengthened by interpreters, translated materials, respectful communication, and recognition of families' cultural knowledge.

Professional ethics require confidentiality of student information and advocacy for English learners' access to appropriate services and equitable treatment.