Praxis ESOL key terms

The smallest unit of sound that can change a word's meaning in a language, such as the /p/ and /b/ that distinguish "pat" from "bat." English has about 44 phonemes but only 26 letters.

The smallest unit of language that carries meaning. Free morphemes stand alone as words ("book"); bound morphemes must attach to another morpheme ("-s" in "books," "un-" in "unhappy").

The study of the sound system of a language: which sounds it uses, how those sounds combine into syllables and words, and which sound patterns are allowed.

The rules of a language for arranging words into phrases and sentences, including word order, sentence structure, and grammatical agreement. Different languages organize sentences differently, which can cause learner errors.

The study of meaning in language, including how words and sentences convey literal meaning and how meanings relate to one another, as in synonyms, antonyms, and categories.

The study of how context and social purpose shape meaning beyond literal words, covering politeness, indirect requests, turn-taking, and rules for what is appropriate to say to whom.

A variety of language chosen for a particular setting, audience, and purpose, ranging from casual conversation to formal academic writing. Learners need to control register to communicate appropriately.

A word in one language that shares an origin, form, and often meaning with a word in another language, such as English "family" and Spanish "familia." Cognates help vocabulary learning when true but mislead when false.

Language the learner can understand even though it contains structures slightly beyond the learner's current level (often called i + 1). Meaning is supported by context, visuals, and prior knowledge.

A hypothesized internal barrier of anxiety, low motivation, or low self-confidence that can keep learners from taking in understandable language, even when good input is available.

The learner's own evolving rule system for the second language, which mixes first-language patterns, second-language patterns, and invented rules, and changes as proficiency develops.

The influence of a learner's first language on second language learning. Transfer is positive when the two languages share a pattern and negative when first-language habits produce an error.

A stage at which a learner's incorrect forms or rules become fixed and stop developing, persisting despite continued exposure and instruction, often in pronunciation or grammar.

The idea that learners benefit from producing language, because the effort to make themselves understood pushes them to notice gaps and adjust their grammar and word choice.

Vygotsky's term for the range of tasks a learner cannot yet do alone but can accomplish with guidance from a teacher or a more capable peer, the target area for scaffolding.

The language proficiency needed for schoolwork that is cognitively demanding and context-reduced, such as reading textbooks and writing essays. It usually takes five to seven years to develop.

A normal early stage in second language acquisition when a learner listens and observes without speaking much. Forcing early production can raise anxiety; teachers should offer low-pressure ways to respond.

An approach in which teachers deliver grade-level content in English while using supports such as visuals, gestures, and adapted texts so English learners can understand the material and build academic language at the same time.

Temporary support such as modeling, sentence frames, graphic organizers, or guided practice that lets a learner complete a task beyond current ability. Support is gradually removed as the learner gains independence.

Planning lessons so that content, process, and product are adjusted to students' readiness, interests, and learning profiles, allowing all learners to work toward the same standards in varied ways.

A statement of the specific listening, speaking, reading, or writing language students will use in a lesson, such as a function, vocabulary set, or grammatical form, paired with the content objective.

A comprehension-based teaching method in which the teacher gives spoken commands and students respond with physical actions. It lowers anxiety, requires no early speech, and suits beginning learners and vocabulary building.

An approach in which lessons center on meaningful tasks with a real communicative outcome, such as planning a trip. Students use language to complete the task, and the teacher addresses language needs that arise.

The pause a teacher allows after asking a question, and after a student begins to answer. Longer wait time, especially for English learners, gives time to process and form a response.

Structured small-group work in which students depend on each other to complete a task, with individual accountability and assigned roles. It increases language practice and interaction among learners.

Ongoing, low-stakes checks during instruction, such as exit tickets, questioning, or observation, used to identify what students understand and to adjust teaching while the unit is still in progress.

An assessment administered at the end of a unit, course, or year to measure how much students have learned, typically graded or used for reporting and placement decisions.

The degree to which an assessment measures what it claims to measure and supports the inferences made from scores, such as whether a reading test really measures reading rather than background knowledge.

The consistency of assessment results across different times, forms, and scorers. A reliable test produces similar scores for similar performance, though reliability alone does not guarantee validity.

A scoring guide that lists criteria for a performance and describes levels of quality for each criterion. Rubrics make scoring more consistent and give learners clear targets and feedback.

An assessment in which students complete tasks that resemble real-world language use, such as a presentation, a letter to a business, or a portfolio of work collected over time.

A change in how a test is administered or presented, such as extra time, a bilingual glossary, a small-group setting, or read-aloud directions, intended to remove barriers without changing what is measured.

The process of adjusting to a new culture, including changes in language, values, and behavior. The degree of acculturation influences how comfortable and motivated a learner is in acquiring the new language.

The stress, confusion, and disorientation people feel when living in an unfamiliar culture. It often follows stages, including initial excitement, frustration, adjustment, and adaptation, and can affect classroom behavior.

The skills, experiences, and knowledge that students' families and communities possess, such as work skills, traditions, or caregiving expertise. Teachers who learn and use them build stronger bridges to academic content.

Instruction that uses students' cultural backgrounds, experiences, and communication styles as resources for learning, while holding high expectations and reflecting students' cultures in materials and interactions.

Fairness in education achieved by giving each student the support needed to reach the same high expectations, which may mean unequal resources. This differs from equality, which gives identical support to everyone.

A 1974 U.S. Supreme Court decision holding that providing English learners the same instruction as English speakers, with no support to understand it, denies them a meaningful education.

A 1981 federal court decision setting three requirements for programs serving English learners: they must be based on sound educational theory, be adequately implemented, and be evaluated for effectiveness.

An approach in which a learner adds a second language while continuing to develop the first. Maintaining the home language supports academic achievement, identity, and family communication.