Praxis Middle School Content flashcards

32 cards. Read the term and the definition here. The deck at the top of this page is optional.

Phonemic awareness

The ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words, such as blending or segmenting the sounds in 'cat'; it involves no printed letters.

Formative assessment

Ongoing checks during instruction, such as exit tickets or questioning, used to adjust teaching immediately; it is low-stakes and not typically graded for accountability.

Thesis statement

A single sentence stating the central claim of an essay and previewing its supporting reasons; it usually appears at the end of the introduction and controls the whole piece.

Main idea versus theme

Main idea is what a text is mostly about, stated or implied; theme is a broader message about life or human nature that the events illustrate.

Text features

Print and graphic aids such as headings, captions, bold words, diagrams, indexes, and glossaries that help readers locate and interpret information in nonfiction text.

Restrictive clause

A clause essential to the sentence's meaning, not set off by commas (e.g., 'Students who study pass'); a nonrestrictive clause is extra information and takes commas.

Morphology

The study of word parts: roots, prefixes, and suffixes. Teaching morphemes such as 'un-', '-less', and 'bio-' helps students decode and infer meanings of unfamiliar words.

Narrative point of view

The perspective from which a story is told: first person uses 'I'; third-person limited follows one character's thoughts; third-person omniscient knows all characters' thoughts.

Slope formula

The slope of a line through two points is m = (y2 - y1)/(x2 - x1), the vertical change divided by the horizontal change; it measures steepness and direction.

Distributive property

a(b + c) = ab + ac. Multiplying a factor by a sum equals multiplying it by each addend and adding; it underlies expanding and factoring algebraic expressions.

Unit rate

A rate expressed per one unit, found by dividing the first quantity by the second, such as 60 miles per 1 hour from 180 miles in 3 hours.

Pythagorean theorem

In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the legs: a^2 + b^2 = c^2, where c is opposite the right angle.

Rational versus irrational numbers

A rational number can be written as a fraction of integers and has a terminating or repeating decimal; an irrational number cannot, such as pi or the square root of 2.

Median versus mean

The median is the middle value of ordered data; the mean is the sum divided by the count. Outliers pull the mean far more than the median.

Proportional relationship

A relationship where y = kx for a constant k, graphed as a line through the origin; doubling x doubles y, and the ratio y/x stays constant.

Scientific notation

A number written as a times 10^n, where 1 is at most a and a is less than 10; n is positive for large numbers and negative for small ones.

Great Compromise

The 1787 agreement creating a bicameral Congress: the House apportions seats by population and the Senate gives each state two seats, balancing large and small states.

Federalism

A system dividing power between a national government and state governments, with enumerated federal powers, reserved state powers, and shared concurrent powers.

Judicial review

The power of courts to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional, established in Marbury v. Madison (1803) and exercised by federal and state courts.

Opportunity cost

The value of the next best alternative given up when a choice is made; because resources are scarce, every decision carries an opportunity cost.

Push and pull factors

Conditions that drive people to leave a place (war, famine, persecution) and conditions that attract them elsewhere (jobs, safety, freedom, family).

Primary source

A firsthand record created by a participant or witness, such as a diary, letter, photograph, artifact, or treaty; it is interpreted by secondary sources like textbooks.

Reconstruction amendments

The Thirteenth (abolished slavery), Fourteenth (citizenship, due process, equal protection), and Fifteenth (voting rights regardless of race) amendments, ratified 1865 to 1870.

Checks and balances

Constitutional mechanisms letting each branch limit the others, such as vetoes, overriding vetoes, Senate confirmation, treaty ratification, and judicial review.

Controlled experiment

A test in which only the independent variable changes while all other conditions stay constant, so any effect on the dependent variable can be attributed to that variable.

Cell theory

The principle that all living things consist of cells, that the cell is the basic unit of life, and that new cells arise from existing cells.

Photosynthesis equation

Six carbon dioxide molecules plus six water molecules plus light energy produce one glucose molecule and six oxygen molecules, occurring in chloroplasts with chlorophyll.

Newton's second law

The net force on an object equals its mass times its acceleration (F = ma); greater force or smaller mass produces greater acceleration in the force's direction.

Density

Mass per unit volume (density = mass/volume). Objects denser than a fluid sink in it; less dense objects float; density does not change with sample size.

Plate boundaries

Divergent boundaries pull apart and create new crust; convergent boundaries collide, forming mountains or subduction zones; transform boundaries slide past and cause earthquakes.

Energy pyramid

A model showing energy decreasing at each trophic level, with roughly ten percent transferred from producers to primary consumers and the rest lost as heat.

Physical versus chemical change

A physical change alters form or state without new substances (melting, tearing); a chemical change produces new substances with different properties (burning, rusting).