I85PREP
⌘ K
Praxis Middle School Content study materials
Praxis Middle School Content study resources

Praxis Middle School Content practice questions

One question at a time. Build your Praxis Middle School Content understanding.

First 50 of 200 questions. Each one lists the choices, the correct answer, and an explanation. The checker at the top of this page saves progress in this browser when it is available.

Continue in the practice tool above to load more questions, 50 at a time.

Question 1English/Language Arts

A middle school student is reading an informational article and needs to identify the author's central claim. Which element of the text most directly states the point the author is trying to establish?

  1. The descriptive details in the first paragraph
  2. The thesis statement in the introduction Correct answer.
  3. The list of sources in the bibliography
  4. The concluding anecdote

Explanation

An author's central claim is the main assertion the whole text supports, and in informational writing it is usually stated explicitly in a thesis statement near the beginning. Supporting details, anecdotes, and source lists function to back up that claim rather than to state it.

Question 2English/Language Arts

Which sentence uses a semicolon correctly according to standard conventions of written English?

  1. The debate team practiced; every afternoon the tournament was approaching.
  2. The debate team practiced every afternoon; and the tournament was approaching.
  3. The debate team practiced every afternoon; because the tournament was approaching.
  4. The debate team practiced every afternoon; the tournament was approaching quickly. Correct answer.

Explanation

A semicolon joins two independent clauses that are closely related and not already connected by a coordinating conjunction. In this sentence both sides of the semicolon can stand alone as complete sentences, which is the required condition.

Question 3English/Language Arts

In a short story, a character who contrasts with the protagonist in order to highlight the protagonist's traits is best described by which literary term?

  1. A motif
  2. An archetype
  3. A narrator
  4. A foil Correct answer.

Explanation

A foil is a character whose qualities contrast with those of another character, usually the protagonist, making the protagonist's traits more visible to the reader. The contrast is the defining feature of the device.

Question 4English/Language Arts

A student is writing a persuasive essay and wants to address a counterargument. Which approach best strengthens the essay's argumentation?

  1. Ending the essay with a question about the opposing view
  2. Ignoring opposing views so the essay stays focused
  3. Listing several opposing views without responding to them
  4. Stating the opposing view and then refuting it with evidence Correct answer.

Explanation

Acknowledging a counterargument and then rebutting it with evidence demonstrates that the writer has considered multiple perspectives and strengthens credibility. Simply ignoring or listing opposing views without response weakens the argument.

Question 5English/Language Arts

Which of the following is the best definition of the term 'theme' in a literary work?

  1. The time and place in which the story occurs
  2. The author's attitude toward the subject
  3. The central message or insight about life the work conveys Correct answer.
  4. The sequence of events that make up the plot

Explanation

Theme refers to the underlying message, insight, or comment about human experience that a literary work communicates. It is distinct from plot, setting, and tone, which describe structure, context, and attitude.

Question 6English/Language Arts

A student writes: 'The scientist carefully recorded her observations.' Which part of speech is the word 'carefully' in this sentence?

  1. Adverb Correct answer.
  2. Conjunction
  3. Adjective
  4. Preposition

Explanation

An adverb modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb, and 'carefully' modifies the verb 'recorded,' telling how the action was performed. Adverbs often end in -ly, though not all do.

Question 7English/Language Arts

When a reader uses context clues to determine the meaning of an unfamiliar word in a passage, which strategy is being applied?

  1. Consulting the passage's title only
  2. Using surrounding words and sentences to infer meaning Correct answer.
  3. Memorizing the word's etymology
  4. Skipping the word entirely

Explanation

Context clues are the words, phrases, and sentences surrounding an unfamiliar word that help a reader infer its meaning. This strategy relies on the immediate textual environment rather than external references.

Question 8English/Language Arts

Which sentence correctly uses a colon according to standard punctuation conventions?

  1. She packed three items: a notebook, a pen, and a calculator. Correct answer.
  2. She packed three items; a notebook: a pen, and a calculator.
  3. She packed: three items a notebook, a pen, and a calculator.
  4. She packed three items, a notebook, a pen, and a calculator:

Explanation

A colon introduces a list or explanation after an independent clause, and here the clause 'She packed three items' is complete before the colon. The colon then introduces the list of items.

Question 9English/Language Arts

A student is analyzing a poem in which the speaker describes a road that 'diverged in a yellow wood.' What is being used when the speaker compares the road to a life choice without using 'like' or 'as'?

  1. Hyperbole
  2. A simile
  3. Personification
  4. A metaphor Correct answer.

Explanation

A metaphor makes a direct comparison between two unlike things without using 'like' or 'as.' When a road is treated as a life choice without an explicit comparison word, that is metaphorical language.

Question 10English/Language Arts

In an argumentative essay, which sentence functions as a claim rather than as evidence?

  1. According to a 2022 district report, 68 percent of students used the library weekly.
  2. One librarian noted that circulation increased after the schedule change.
  3. School libraries should remain open during lunch because they support independent reading. Correct answer.
  4. The survey was administered to 400 students across three schools.

Explanation

A claim is a debatable assertion that the writer must support, often signaled by evaluative language such as 'should.' The other sentences present data, quotations, or methodological details that serve as evidence.

Question 11English/Language Arts

A writer wants to improve coherence between two paragraphs in an essay. Which revision strategy would most effectively connect the ideas?

  1. Shortening both paragraphs by removing supporting details
  2. Adding a transitional phrase that links the topic of the second paragraph to the first Correct answer.
  3. Changing the essay's point of view mid-paragraph
  4. Replacing concrete nouns with abstract ones

Explanation

Coherence is improved when paragraphs are linked with transitions that show the relationship between ideas. A transitional phrase signals how the next paragraph connects to the preceding one, guiding the reader.

Question 12English/Language Arts

A reader encounters the sentence: 'The committee's decision was unilateral, made without consulting any of the affected teachers.' What does 'unilateral' most likely mean in this context?

  1. Made with unanimous agreement
  2. Made by an elected group
  3. Made after lengthy debate
  4. Made by one side alone Correct answer.

Explanation

The context clue 'made without consulting any of the affected teachers' indicates that the decision was made by one party alone. 'Unilateral' means one-sided or done by a single party.

Question 13English/Language Arts

In a narrative, a first-person narrator who admits to being unreliable primarily affects the reader by doing what?

  1. Guaranteeing that all events described are factually accurate
  2. Removing the need for the reader to interpret events
  3. Requiring the reader to question the accuracy of the account Correct answer.
  4. Establishing an objective, omniscient perspective

Explanation

An unreliable first-person narrator presents events through a limited, potentially distorted perspective, so readers must evaluate the account critically. This creates ambiguity and invites interpretation rather than passive acceptance.

Question 14English/Language Arts

Which sentence correctly uses a comma to set off a nonrestrictive (nonessential) clause?

  1. The novel which won the award, was written by a local author.
  2. The novel, that won the award was written by a local author.
  3. The novel, which won the award, was written by a local author. Correct answer.
  4. The novel that won the award, was written by a local author.

Explanation

A nonrestrictive clause adds extra information that is not essential to identifying the noun, and it is set off by commas on both sides. 'Which' typically introduces such clauses, and both commas are required.

Question 15English/Language Arts

A student is comparing two texts about the same historical event. One is a primary source diary and the other is a modern textbook chapter. Which statement best describes an analytical difference between them?

  1. The diary is unreliable because it was written by hand
  2. The diary offers a firsthand perspective, while the textbook synthesizes multiple sources Correct answer.
  3. The textbook is always more accurate because it is newer
  4. Both texts present identical information in different formats

Explanation

A primary source such as a diary reflects a participant's immediate, firsthand perspective, while a textbook synthesizes and interprets information from many sources. Recognizing this distinction is central to source analysis.

Question 16English/Language Arts

Which sentence demonstrates correct subject-verb agreement with a collective noun?

  1. The team are practicing in the gym every day.
  2. The team is practicing in the gym every day. Correct answer.
  3. The team were practicing in the gym every day.
  4. The team have practiced in the gym every day.

Explanation

In American English, a collective noun such as 'team' is generally treated as a single unit and takes a singular verb. 'Is practicing' matches the singular subject.

Question 17English/Language Arts

A writer wants to revise a sentence to eliminate wordiness. Which revision best achieves conciseness while preserving meaning? Original: 'Due to the fact that the meeting was canceled, we were unable to discuss the proposal.'

  1. In light of the cancellation of the meeting, discussion of the proposal was not possible.
  2. Due to the fact that the meeting was canceled, we were unable to discuss the proposal.
  3. Because the meeting was canceled, we could not discuss the proposal. Correct answer.
  4. The meeting being canceled, it was not possible for us to discuss the proposal.

Explanation

Concise revision replaces wordy phrases like 'due to the fact that' and 'were unable to' with tighter equivalents such as 'because' and 'could not.' The resulting sentence preserves the original meaning with fewer words.

Question 18English/Language Arts

A reader is analyzing how an author uses imagery in a descriptive passage. Which question best guides that analysis?

  1. How many paragraphs does the passage contain?
  2. What sensory details does the author use, and what mood do they create? Correct answer.
  3. Who published the passage and in what year?
  4. What is the passage's word count?

Explanation

Imagery analysis focuses on sensory language and the effects it produces, such as mood or tone. Asking which sensory details are used and what they evoke directs attention to the literary device itself.

Question 19English/Language Arts

Which of the following best explains the function of a thesis statement in an academic essay?

  1. It provides a list of every source the writer consulted.
  2. It states the essay's main argument and previews its organization. Correct answer.
  3. It introduces a counterargument that the essay will ignore.
  4. It summarizes the essay's conclusion in the final paragraph.

Explanation

A thesis statement presents the essay's central argument and often signals how the essay will be organized. It guides the reader's expectations and anchors the body paragraphs.

Question 20English/Language Arts

In a poem, the line 'The wind whispered secrets to the sleeping hills' relies most heavily on which literary device?

  1. Alliteration
  2. Onomatopoeia
  3. Personification Correct answer.
  4. Irony

Explanation

Personification attributes human actions or qualities to nonhuman things; here the wind 'whispered' and the hills are 'sleeping,' both human-like traits. The device animates the landscape.

Question 21English/Language Arts

A student is evaluating an online source for a research paper. Which criterion most directly addresses whether the source's author has the expertise to write on the topic?

  1. Authority Correct answer.
  2. Bias
  3. Relevance
  4. Currency

Explanation

Authority concerns the credibility and expertise of the author or publisher, including credentials and institutional affiliation. Evaluating authority helps determine whether the source can be trusted on the topic.

Question 22English/Language Arts

A student is asked to analyze how an author's use of a nonlinear plot structure affects the reader's understanding of a story. Which statement best represents a valid analysis?

  1. The story is written in the past tense throughout.
  2. The author uses many adjectives to describe the setting.
  3. Flashbacks interrupt the chronological order, gradually revealing past events that explain a character's present motivation. Correct answer.
  4. The story uses chapters, which is a common way to organize novels.

Explanation

A valid analysis of nonlinear structure connects the technique to its effect, such as flashbacks revealing past events that clarify present motivation. It explains how the structure shapes the reader's understanding rather than merely naming a feature.

Question 23English/Language Arts

A writer claims: 'Students who read for pleasure perform better academically.' A critic responds: 'That conclusion is flawed because students who already excel academically may be more likely to choose reading for pleasure.' Which logical issue is the critic raising?

  1. False dilemma
  2. Appeal to authority
  3. Reverse causation Correct answer.
  4. Circular reasoning

Explanation

The critic suggests the causal direction may be reversed: strong academic performance could lead to reading for pleasure rather than the reverse. This is a concern about reverse causation, a common flaw in correlational claims.

Question 24English/Language Arts

In a passage, an author shifts from formal academic language to short, emotional sentences when describing a personal loss. What is the most likely rhetorical purpose of this shift?

  1. To demonstrate the author's command of academic vocabulary
  2. To intensify the emotional impact and draw the reader closer to the experience Correct answer.
  3. To introduce a new source that supports the argument
  4. To signal a change in audience from experts to children

Explanation

A deliberate shift in style and sentence length can heighten emotional effect and create intimacy with the reader. The contrast with formal language makes the emotional passage stand out and deepens its impact.

Question 25English/Language Arts

A student must evaluate whether a paragraph uses an inductive or deductive structure. The paragraph begins with a broad principle and then presents specific examples that follow from it. Which description best fits this structure?

  1. Deductive, because it moves from a general principle to specific instances Correct answer.
  2. Chronological, because it orders events by time
  3. Comparative, because it contrasts two ideas
  4. Inductive, because it moves from specific evidence to a general conclusion

Explanation

Deductive reasoning begins with a general principle or premise and applies it to specific cases. A paragraph that opens with a broad principle and then illustrates it with examples follows this pattern.

Question 26English/Language Arts

A student studies the word 'benevolent' and learns it contains the Latin root 'bene-'. Which meaning of that root best helps the student infer the word's sense of kindness and goodwill?

  1. strong or powerful
  2. before or earlier
  3. to carry or bring
  4. well or good Correct answer.

Explanation

The root 'bene-' means 'well' or 'good,' as seen in words like benefit and benediction. Recognizing this root lets a reader connect 'benevolent' to the idea of wishing good toward others.

Question 27English/Language Arts

A writer wants to combine these two sentences into one that emphasizes cause and effect: 'The library extended its hours. More students used the study rooms.' Which revision best expresses the causal relationship?

  1. The library extended its hours, so more students used the study rooms, too.
  2. Because the library extended its hours, more students used the study rooms. Correct answer.
  3. The library extended its hours; however, more students used the study rooms.
  4. The library extended its hours, and more students used the study rooms.

Explanation

A subordinating conjunction such as 'because' explicitly marks the first clause as the cause of the second. This gives the sentence a clear causal structure that coordination alone does not provide.

Question 28English/Language Arts

In a short story, a character who is described only through the reactions of others and never speaks directly is best described as which type of character?

  1. a foil character
  2. a static character
  3. an indirect character Correct answer.
  4. a round character

Explanation

Indirect characterization reveals a character through others' reactions, dialogue, and actions rather than direct description. A character known only through how others respond is therefore presented indirectly.

Question 29English/Language Arts

Which sentence from a student essay uses a semicolon correctly according to standard conventions?

  1. The experiment failed; faulty equipment, which was the cause.
  2. The experiment failed; the equipment was faulty. Correct answer.
  3. The experiment failed; and the equipment was faulty.
  4. The experiment failed; because the equipment was faulty.

Explanation

A semicolon joins two independent clauses that are closely related and not already joined by a coordinating conjunction. 'The experiment failed' and 'the equipment was faulty' are each complete clauses.

Question 30English/Language Arts

A reader wants to determine an author's point of view in an informational article about school start times. Which feature of the text most directly reveals the author's stance?

  1. the presence of a works-cited list at the end
  2. the length of the paragraphs in the article
  3. the number of statistics the author includes
  4. the author's choice of evaluative adjectives such as 'harmful' or 'sensible' Correct answer.

Explanation

Evaluative word choices, or loaded adjectives, signal how the author judges the topic and thus reveal stance. Neutral statistics or formatting features do not by themselves indicate a position.

Question 31English/Language Arts

Which statement about the difference between revising and editing in the writing process is accurate?

  1. Revising focuses on large-scale changes to ideas and organization, while editing focuses on correctness at the sentence level. Correct answer.
  2. Revising happens only after editing has been completed.
  3. Revising and editing are interchangeable terms for proofreading a final draft.
  4. Revising focuses on spelling and grammar, while editing focuses on the overall structure.

Explanation

Revision addresses content, organization, and clarity of ideas, while editing targets conventions such as grammar, punctuation, and spelling. The two are distinct stages, with editing generally following revision.

Question 32English/Language Arts

A student is writing a narrative and wants to establish a vivid setting in the opening paragraph. Which technique would most effectively accomplish this goal?

  1. stating the theme explicitly in the first sentence
  2. listing the events of the story in chronological order
  3. using sensory details about sight, sound, and smell Correct answer.
  4. introducing every character by full name immediately

Explanation

Sensory details engage the reader's senses and create a concrete sense of place, which is the core of establishing setting. Chronology, theme statements, and name lists serve other narrative purposes.

Question 33English/Language Arts

In an essay, a writer uses the phrase 'the data suggest' rather than 'the data suggests.' Which convention does this choice reflect?

  1. treating 'data' as a collective singular noun
  2. applying subject-verb agreement to an indefinite pronoun
  3. treating 'data' as a plural noun Correct answer.
  4. using a subjunctive verb after 'data'

Explanation

In formal academic usage, 'data' is the plural of 'datum,' so it takes a plural verb such as 'suggest.' This is a matter of number agreement with a plural noun.

Question 34English/Language Arts

A student reads an editorial arguing that recess should be lengthened. Which statement would best function as a counterargument the student could address in a response essay?

  1. Many children enjoy playing outdoors during recess.
  2. The editorial was published in a local newspaper last month.
  3. Recess can improve students' focus when they return to class.
  4. Some schools have limited instructional time and worry that longer recess reduces core class minutes. Correct answer.

Explanation

A counterargument presents a legitimate opposing reason that a response must acknowledge and answer. The concern about lost instructional time directly opposes lengthening recess.

Question 35English/Language Arts

A writer composes this sentence: 'Walking through the museum, the paintings impressed the students.' Which revision best corrects the dangling modifier?

  1. Walking through the museum, the paintings were impressive to the students.
  2. The paintings impressed the students, walking through the museum.
  3. Walking through the museum, the students were impressed by the paintings. Correct answer.
  4. The paintings, walking through the museum, impressed the students.

Explanation

A participial phrase must modify the noun that logically performs the action. In the original, the paintings appear to be walking; the revision makes 'the students' the subject who walk through the museum.

Question 36English/Language Arts

A reader encounters the sentence: 'Her argument was a house of cards, collapsing at the first challenge.' Which analysis best explains the effect of the comparison?

  1. It compares the argument to a storm, implying it caused damage.
  2. It compares the argument to a game, implying the arguer is playing unfairly.
  3. It compares the argument to a fragile structure, implying it lacks a sound foundation. Correct answer.
  4. It compares the argument to a building project, implying careful planning.

Explanation

The metaphor of a house of cards suggests something built without a solid base that easily collapses. The reader infers the argument is weak and unstable under scrutiny.

Question 37English/Language Arts

A student is evaluating a website about nutrition and finds the author is a registered dietitian who cites peer-reviewed studies. Which criterion for source evaluation is most directly satisfied?

  1. currency of the information
  2. length of the article
  3. visual appeal of the site
  4. authority and credibility Correct answer.

Explanation

Authority concerns the expertise and trustworthiness of the author and the quality of cited sources. A credentialed author citing peer-reviewed research directly supports credibility.

Question 38English/Language Arts

A paragraph opens with the claim 'Cities should invest in public transit' and then presents ridership data, cost comparisons, and environmental studies before restating the claim. Which structure does this paragraph use?

  1. deductive, moving from a general claim to specific support Correct answer.
  2. chronological, arranging ideas by time
  3. comparative, weighing two equal positions
  4. inductive, moving from specific evidence to a general conclusion

Explanation

Deductive structure states a general claim first and then supplies specific evidence that supports it. The paragraph follows exactly this pattern, beginning and ending with the claim.

Question 39English/Language Arts

Which sentence uses dashes correctly to set off a parenthetical element?

  1. The finalists-Maya, Devon, and Priya-presented their projects. Correct answer.
  2. The finalists, Maya, Devon, and Priya-presented their projects.
  3. The finalists-Maya, Devon, and Priya, presented their projects.
  4. The finalists-Maya, Devon, and Priya presented-their projects.

Explanation

A pair of dashes can enclose a parenthetical interruption, and the sentence must remain grammatical when the enclosed material is removed. Only option 0 uses a matched pair around the list and leaves a complete sentence.

Question 40English/Language Arts

In a poem, a line ends with 'tired' and the next line ends with 'fire.' Which term best describes this sound device?

  1. assonance
  2. onomatopoeia
  3. alliteration
  4. rhyme Correct answer.

Explanation

Rhyme is the repetition of similar sounds at the ends of words, often at line endings in poetry. 'Tired' and 'fire' share a similar final sound, producing end rhyme.

Question 41English/Language Arts

A writer wants to improve cohesion between two paragraphs, the first about deforestation and the second about soil erosion. Which revision strategy would best create a logical link?

  1. starting the second paragraph with a new unrelated statistic
  2. adding a transitional sentence that connects loss of trees to loss of topsoil Correct answer.
  3. removing the topic sentence from the second paragraph
  4. repeating the first paragraph's topic sentence verbatim

Explanation

Cohesion improves when a transition explicitly shows the relationship between ideas in adjacent paragraphs. A sentence linking deforestation to soil erosion makes the logical connection clear.

Question 42English/Language Arts

A student is analyzing a primary-source letter from a soldier and a textbook account of the same battle. Which distinction best explains why the two sources differ?

  1. The textbook is a primary source, while the letter is secondary.
  2. The letter and textbook must agree because they describe the same event.
  3. The letter offers a personal, immediate perspective, while the textbook synthesizes multiple sources after the fact. Correct answer.
  4. The letter is fictional, while the textbook is factual.

Explanation

A primary source reflects a firsthand, contemporaneous viewpoint, while a secondary source interprets and synthesizes evidence later. This difference in perspective and purpose explains why accounts diverge.

Question 43English/Language Arts

Which sentence demonstrates correct pronoun-antecedent agreement with an indefinite pronoun?

  1. Each of the students submitted its project on time.
  2. Each of the students submitted their project on time.
  3. Each of the students submitted our project on time.
  4. Each of the students submitted his or her project on time. Correct answer.

Explanation

The indefinite pronoun 'each' is singular, so it requires a singular pronoun such as 'his or her.' Traditional agreement rules treat 'each' as singular even when followed by a plural phrase.

Question 44English/Language Arts

A reader notices that a novel's narrator describes events the narrator could not possibly have witnessed. Which literary concept does this most directly raise?

  1. the rhyme scheme of the text
  2. the resolution of the conflict
  3. the reliability and limitations of the narrator Correct answer.
  4. the setting of the story

Explanation

When a narrator reports events beyond their possible knowledge, the reader must question the narrator's credibility. This concerns narrative reliability and point of view.

Question 45English/Language Arts

A student wants to write a sentence that uses a restrictive (essential) clause correctly. Which sentence does so?

  1. The novel, that won the award, was written by a local author.
  2. The novel which won the award, was written by a local author.
  3. The novel that won the award was written by a local author. Correct answer.
  4. The novel, which won the award, was written by a local author.

Explanation

A restrictive clause identifies which novel is meant and takes no commas; 'that' is standard in restrictive clauses. Removing it would change the meaning, so it is essential.

Question 46English/Language Arts

A writer claims: 'All students should be required to play a sport because athletes earn higher grades.' Which logical flaw is most evident in this reasoning?

  1. It commits a false dilemma by offering only two choices.
  2. It assumes that correlation between athletics and grades proves causation. Correct answer.
  3. It relies on an appeal to authority without evidence.
  4. It uses a circular definition of the word 'sport.'

Explanation

The argument moves from an observed association between athletics and grades to a causal claim about requirement. Correlation does not establish that playing sports causes higher grades.

Question 47English/Language Arts

A student is analyzing how an author's use of a frame narrative affects a story. Which explanation best captures the effect of this structure?

  1. It creates a story within a story, letting an outer narrator contextualize the inner tale. Correct answer.
  2. It requires the events to be told in strict chronological order.
  3. It removes the need for a narrator entirely.
  4. It eliminates the possibility of an unreliable narrator.

Explanation

A frame narrative places one story inside another, with an outer narrator introducing or contextualizing the inner narrative. This layering shapes how readers receive the inner tale.

Question 48English/Language Arts

A writer wants to combine these sentences to emphasize the contrast between two findings while keeping both as independent clauses: 'The first study found a strong effect. The second study found no effect at all.' Which revision best achieves this?

  1. The first study found a strong effect, the second study found no effect at all.
  2. The first study found a strong effect and the second study found no effect at all.
  3. The first study found a strong effect, but the second study found no effect at all. Correct answer.
  4. The first study found a strong effect; the second study found no effect at all; however.

Explanation

A comma plus the coordinating conjunction 'but' joins two independent clauses and explicitly signals contrast. This preserves both clauses while highlighting the opposition between findings.

Question 49English/Language Arts

A poet repeats the phrase 'we carry' at the start of several consecutive lines. Which analysis best explains the rhetorical effect of this repetition?

  1. It creates a caesura that interrupts the poem's rhythm.
  2. It creates anaphora that emphasizes shared burden and builds rhythmic momentum. Correct answer.
  3. It creates a sonnet structure that fixes the rhyme scheme.
  4. It creates a simile that compares the speaker to a carrier.

Explanation

Anaphora is the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginnings of successive lines, which stresses the repeated idea and builds rhythm. Here the repetition reinforces the theme of shared burden.

Question 50English/Language Arts

A student must determine whether an author's argument is valid. The author writes: 'If a school bans phones, then test scores rise. This school's scores rose, so it must have banned phones.' Which statement best evaluates the reasoning?

  1. The reasoning is invalid because it affirms the consequent, assuming the cause from the effect. Correct answer.
  2. The reasoning is valid because it uses a conditional statement.
  3. The reasoning is invalid because it denies the antecedent.
  4. The reasoning is valid because the premises guarantee the conclusion.

Explanation

The argument has the form 'If P then Q; Q; therefore P,' which is the fallacy of affirming the consequent. A rise in scores could have many causes, so the conclusion does not follow necessarily.