Praxis Psychology cheat sheet

Ethical decision-making models (e.g., APA Ethics Code steps) prioritize: identify the problem, consult the Ethics Code and law, consult colleagues, evaluate options, act, document.

Informed consent requires competence, voluntariness, and disclosure of purpose, risks, benefits, alternatives, and limits of confidentiality; it is ongoing, not a one-time signature.

Confidentiality exceptions: imminent danger to self or identifiable others (duty to protect), suspected child/elder/dependent adult abuse, court order, and client-initiated litigation waivers.

Test standardization: reliability coefficients ≥ .90 preferred for high-stakes decisions; standard error of measurement (SEM = SD√(1−r)) quantifies score-band uncertainty.

Validity types: content (test blueprint coverage), construct (convergent/discriminant), criterion (predictive/concurrent); a test can be reliable without being valid, not vice versa.

DSM-5-TR diagnostic thresholds require clinically significant distress or impairment and exclusion of substance/medical causes; duration criteria differ by disorder (e.g., 2 weeks major depression, 6 months persistent depressive disorder).

Classical test theory: observed score = true score + error; item difficulty (p) and discrimination (point-biserial) guide item analysis.

Statistical inference: p < .05 indicates observed effect unlikely under null; effect size (Cohen's d, η²) and confidence intervals convey practical significance independent of p.

Research designs: true experiments use random assignment and manipulation; quasi-experiments lack randomization; correlational designs cannot establish causation.

Threats to internal validity: history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, regression to the mean, selection, attrition; external validity concerns generalizability.

Neurons: action potential follows all-or-none law; myelin increases conduction velocity; neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin, GABA, glutamate, acetylcholine, norepinephrine) have distinct receptor systems.

Brain structures: hippocampus (memory consolidation), amygdala (fear/emotion), hypothalamus (homeostasis/endocrine), basal ganglia (motor control), prefrontal cortex (executive function).

Classical conditioning (Pavlov): CS paired with UCS yields CR; extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination; operant conditioning (Skinner) uses reinforcement schedules (fixed/variable, ratio/interval).

Piaget stages: sensorimotor (object permanence), preoperational (egocentrism, conservation failure), concrete operational (conservation, reversibility), formal operational (abstract reasoning).

Erikson psychosocial stages: trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs role confusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs stagnation, integrity vs despair.

Attachment patterns (Ainsworth Strange Situation): secure, anxious-ambivalent, avoidant, disorganized; internal working models shape later relationships.

Psychodynamic: Freud's id/ego/superego, defense mechanisms (repression, projection, rationalization, displacement, sublimation); transference and countertransference in therapy.

Behavioral therapy techniques: systematic desensitization (Wolpe), exposure with response prevention (OCD), token economies, behavioral activation (depression), skills training.

Cognitive therapy (Beck): cognitive triad, automatic thoughts, cognitive distortions (all-or-nothing, catastrophizing, overgeneralization); CBT integrates behavioral and cognitive methods.

Humanistic (Rogers): unconditional positive regard, empathy, congruence; client-centered therapy emphasizes self-actualization and the therapeutic alliance.

Psychopharmacology: SSRIs first-line for many anxiety/depressive disorders; lithium for bipolar maintenance; antipsychotics (typical vs atypical) for psychosis; benzodiazepines for acute anxiety with dependence risk.

Assessment instruments: WAIS (IQ, mean 100, SD 15), MMPI-2 (personality/psychopathology), Beck Depression Inventory, Rorschach/TAT (projective), neuropsychological batteries (e.g., Halstead-Reitan).

Group and family therapy: systems theory views symptoms as maintained by family interaction patterns; group stages are forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning.

Multicultural competence: awareness of own biases, knowledge of client's cultural context, and skills for culturally adapted assessment/intervention; avoid ethnocentric norms.

Supervision and training: supervisors hold legal/ethical responsibility for supervisee's client care; informed consent for supervision and clear evaluation criteria are required.

Record keeping: maintain records sufficient for continuity of care and legal/ethical accountability; retention periods vary by jurisdiction and setting (commonly 5–7 years after last contact, longer for minors).

Boundaries and multiple relationships: avoid when exploitation risk exists; not all multiple relationships are unethical-assess power differential, duration, and termination prospects.

Competence: practice within boundaries of training and experience; seek consultation/supervision or refer when outside competence; continuing education maintains currency.

Mandated reporting: reasonable suspicion (not proof) triggers reporting of suspected abuse/neglect; follow jurisdiction-specific timelines and document actions.

Informed consent for research: IRB oversight, voluntary participation, deception requires debriefing, minimal risk, and justification; vulnerable populations need extra protections.

Test security and copyright: do not reproduce copyrighted test items; use tests only with appropriate qualifications and current norms for the population assessed.

Telepsychology: verify licensure jurisdiction, privacy/HIPAA compliance, emergency protocols, identity verification, and technology competence before providing services remotely.

Descriptive statistics: mean/median/mode (central tendency), range/variance/SD (variability); normal distribution ~68% within 1 SD, ~95% within 2 SD, ~99.7% within 3 SD.

Inferential tests: t-test (two groups), ANOVA (3+ groups), chi-square (categorical association), correlation (Pearson r, −1 to +1); assumptions include normality, independence, homogeneity of variance.

Sampling: random sampling supports external validity; random assignment supports internal validity; probability vs nonprobability sampling methods.

Reliability types: test-retest, internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha, split-half), inter-rater; validity evidence: content, construct, criterion.

Ethics code structure (APA): General Principles (aspirational) vs Standards (enforceable); five principles: beneficence/nonmaleficence, fidelity/responsibility, integrity, justice, respect for rights/dignity.

Diagnostic classification cautions: cultural, gender, and contextual factors can mimic or mask symptoms; use structured interviews and collateral information to improve accuracy.

Psychoeducation and prevention: universal, selective, and indicated prevention levels; psychoeducation improves adherence and reduces relapse in chronic conditions.

Crisis intervention: assess risk (ideation, plan, means, intent, protective factors), ensure safety, involve supports, document, and arrange follow-up; suicide risk is elevated after recent discharge and prior attempts.

Lifespan development: prenatal teratogens, infant reflexes, language milestones (babbling ~6 months, first words ~12 months, two-word phrases ~24 months), puberty timing effects.

Aging: crystallized intelligence tends to hold or grow; fluid intelligence declines with age; dementia vs delirium vs depression distinction (delirium acute/fluctuating; dementia progressive; depression pseudodementia).

Social psychology: fundamental attribution error, cognitive dissonance, conformity (Asch), obedience (Milgram), bystander effect, social facilitation/inhibition.

Personality models: Big Five (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism); trait stability increases with age; person–situation interaction.

Motivation and emotion: intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation, self-determination theory (autonomy, competence, relatedness), Yerkes-Dodson arousal-performance curve.

Learning and memory: working memory capacity limits, encoding specificity, spaced practice, retrieval practice, interference (proactive/retroactive), primacy/recency effects.

Intelligence theories: Spearman's g, Cattell-Horn-Carroll (fluid/crystallized), Gardner's multiple intelligences, Sternberg's triarchic theory; IQ scores are norm-referenced.

Biopsychosocial formulation integrates biological, psychological, and social factors; it guides assessment, diagnosis, and treatment planning across settings.