Praxis Psychology key terms

A learning process in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being repeatedly paired with a stimulus that already produces that response. The neutral cue acquires predictive value through contiguity with the unconditioned stimulus.

Learning in which the frequency of a behavior changes because of the consequences that follow it. Reinforcement increases behavior and punishment decreases it, with effects depending on timing, consistency, and the schedule used.

Adding a desirable stimulus after a behavior, which increases the likelihood that the behavior recurs. The defining feature is the addition of a consequence plus the observed strengthening of the response over time.

Removing or avoiding an aversive stimulus after a behavior, which strengthens that behavior. It is not punishment; the outcome is an increase in the response, as when taking aspirin removes a headache and reinforces pill-taking.

Rules specifying when and how often a reinforced response is followed by a consequence. Fixed and variable ratio or interval schedules produce characteristic patterns of responding, including pauses and steady or accelerating rates.

The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned or operant response when the reinforcement or conditioned-unconditioned pairing stops. Spontaneous recovery, in which the response briefly returns after a delay, can occur during this process.

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period, usually weaker than before. It shows that extinction suppresses rather than erases the original learning, which can return under stress or renewed exposure.

Acquisition of behavior by watching others and observing the consequences they experience. Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation determine whether a modeled behavior is actually performed by the observer.

A limited-capacity system that temporarily holds and manipulates information during cognitive tasks. It supports reasoning, comprehension, and problem solving, and its capacity constrains how much information can be processed at once.

The initial process of transforming sensory information into a form that memory can store. Depth of processing, elaboration, and organization at this stage strongly influence later retrieval success.

The process of accessing stored information and bringing it back into awareness. Cues, context, and practice at recalling information affect how readily material can be retrieved when needed.

The relatively permanent store of information that can last from minutes to a lifetime. It includes explicit memory for facts and events and implicit memory for skills and conditioned responses.

A mental shortcut that simplifies judgment and decision making, often producing fast but imperfect answers. Availability, representativeness, and anchoring are common examples that can introduce predictable biases.

Judging the frequency or probability of an event by how easily examples come to mind. Vivid, recent, or emotionally striking events seem more common than they are because they are easier to recall.

The tendency to seek out, interpret, and remember information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring or discounting contradictory evidence. It can persist even when disconfirming data are readily available.

The discomfort experienced when holding inconsistent beliefs or when behavior conflicts with attitudes. People reduce it by changing a belief, changing the behavior, or adding justifying cognitions.

The process of explaining the causes of behavior, one's own or another's. People distinguish internal from external causes and stable from unstable ones, and these explanations shape emotion and expectation.

The tendency to overemphasize personality or dispositional explanations for others' behavior while underestimating situational influences. It is most pronounced when explaining negative behavior by people outside one's own group.

The tendency to attribute one's successes to internal qualities and one's failures to external circumstances. It protects self-esteem and is common in achievement settings across many cultures.

Changing one's behavior or beliefs to match those of a group, often in response to perceived social pressure. Group size, unanimity, and public versus private responding influence how strongly it occurs.

Compliance with a direct command from an authority figure. Research shows that situational factors such as proximity to the authority and the presence of disobedient peers strongly affect whether people comply.

Conformity motivated by the desire to be liked or accepted by others rather than by a belief that others are correct. It often produces public compliance without private acceptance of the group's view.

The finding that individuals are less likely to help when others are present. Diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance help explain why intervention becomes less likely as group size increases.

The reduction in felt personal obligation to act when others are available to share the burden. It contributes to the bystander effect and becomes stronger as the number of witnesses grows.

A negative attitude toward members of a group based on their group membership rather than individual characteristics. It has affective, cognitive, and behavioral components and differs from the discriminatory behavior it may produce.

A generalized belief about the characteristics of a group and its members. Stereotypes can be accurate or inaccurate, are often automatic, and may influence judgment even when a person rejects them.

Unequal treatment of individuals based on their group membership. It is the behavioral expression of prejudice and can occur at interpersonal and institutional levels.

A psychometric framework holding that an observed score equals true score plus measurement error. It underpins reliability estimates and the standard error of measurement used to interpret individual scores.

The consistency or reproducibility of scores across occasions, raters, or equivalent test forms. It sets an upper limit on validity and is often quantified with internal consistency, test-retest, or inter-rater coefficients.

The extent to which evidence and theory support the interpretations and uses of test scores for a particular purpose. It is a property of inferences, not of the test itself, and accumulates from multiple sources of evidence.

The degree to which test scores reflect the intended theoretical attribute and not irrelevant factors. Evidence includes convergent and discriminant relations with other measures and the fit of the scores to predicted patterns.

An estimate of the variability of observed scores around a person's true score. It is used to build confidence intervals around an individual score and depends on test reliability and score variability.

Administration of a test with fixed instructions, scoring rules, and norms so that scores are comparable across examinees and occasions. Standardization supports fairness in interpretation but does not by itself guarantee validity.

The process of informing prospective clients or research participants about procedures, risks, benefits, and alternatives before they voluntarily agree to participate. It respects autonomy and must be documented appropriately.

The ethical and legal duty to protect information disclosed in a professional relationship from unauthorized release. It has recognized limits, such as danger to self or others, abuse reporting, and court orders.

A legal and ethical obligation to take protective action when a client poses a serious threat to an identifiable victim. It may involve notifying the intended victim, authorities, or both, depending on jurisdiction.

A situation in which a psychologist has a professional role with a person and also another role, such as friend, employer, or relative. Multiple roles can impair objectivity and exploit power differences.