Stanford 10 key terms

The most important point a passage makes about its topic. It may be stated in a topic sentence or pieced together from several details, and every other sentence in the passage supports it.

A fact, example, or reason in a passage that explains, proves, or describes the main idea. Details answer questions such as who, what, when, where, or why.

A conclusion a reader draws by combining clues in the text with background knowledge. The answer is not stated directly, so the reader must reason from evidence on the page.

A word, phrase, or sentence near an unfamiliar word that hints at its meaning. Common types include definitions, examples, synonyms, and opposites placed nearby.

The reason a writer produces a text, usually to inform, persuade, entertain, or explain how to do something. Recognizing the purpose helps a reader judge which details matter most.

The underlying message or lesson about life that a story conveys, such as honesty matters or hard work pays off. Unlike a topic, a theme is a full statement rather than a single word.

The order in which events or steps happen in a text. Signal words such as first, next, then, and finally show how one action connects to the next.

A fact can be checked and proven true, while an opinion expresses a belief, feeling, or judgment. Test questions often ask readers to sort statements into these two categories.

To state the main idea and the most important details of a passage briefly, in your own words, leaving out minor examples and repetition.

To compare is to show how two things are alike; to contrast is to show how they differ. Passages using this pattern often include signal words such as both, similarly, however, and unlike.

A cause is the reason something happens; an effect is the result. Readers look for signal words such as because, so, therefore, and as a result to link the two.

Language that goes beyond literal meaning to create pictures or comparisons. Common forms include similes, metaphors, and personification, and they appear often in poetry and descriptive prose.

The value of a digit based on its position in a number. In 4,382 the 3 means three hundreds, because each place to the left is ten times larger than the one before.

An answer that is close enough rather than exact, found by rounding numbers or using mental math. Estimates help check whether a computed answer is reasonable.

Replacing a number with a nearby, simpler number, usually a multiple of ten, hundred, or whole number. Check the digit to the right of the place being rounded to decide whether to round up.

A number that names part of a whole or part of a group, written with a numerator on top and a denominator below. The denominator tells how many equal parts the whole is divided into.

A number written with a decimal point to show tenths, hundredths, and smaller parts of a whole. Digits after the point stand for fractions with denominators of ten, one hundred, and so on.

The distance all the way around the outside of a flat shape. It is found by adding the lengths of every side.

The amount of surface a flat shape covers, measured in square units. For a rectangle, multiply the length by the width.

The average of a set of numbers, found by adding all the values and then dividing by how many values there are.

A letter or symbol that stands for an unknown or changing number in an expression or equation, such as n in 4 + n = 9.

A mathematical statement showing that two expressions have the same value, with an equals sign between them. Solving an equation means finding the value that makes the statement true.

The agreed rules for which part of a calculation to do first: parentheses, then exponents, then multiplication and division from left to right, then addition and subtraction from left to right.

The part of a sentence that names who or what the sentence is about, usually a noun or pronoun. It is often the doer of the action.

The part of a sentence that tells what the subject is or does, and it always contains the verb. In the sentence "The dog barked loudly," the predicate is "barked loudly."

A group of words punctuated like a sentence but missing a subject, a verb, or a complete thought, so it cannot stand alone.

Two or more complete sentences written together without correct punctuation or a connecting word. It can be repaired by adding a period, a semicolon, or a conjunction.

The rule that a subject and its verb must match in number. A singular subject takes a singular verb, and a plural subject takes a plural verb.

Marks such as periods, commas, question marks, and quotation marks that show where ideas begin and end and make a sentence's meaning clear.

Using an uppercase letter for the first word of a sentence, for proper nouns such as names and place names, and for titles. Incorrect capitals count as errors in editing tasks.

A word such as and, but, or, or because that joins words, phrases, or clauses together and shows how the joined parts are related.

A single unit of sound in a spoken word that contains one vowel sound, such as the three beats in com-pu-ter. Dividing words into syllables helps with spelling and decoding.

One of two or more words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings, such as their and there, or to and two.

A letter group added to the front of a base word that changes its meaning, such as un- in unhappy or re- in rewrite.

A letter group added to the end of a base word that changes its meaning or its part of speech, such as -ful in helpful or -ing in running.

The base part of a word that carries its core meaning, before any prefix or suffix is attached. Knowing roots helps a reader figure out related words.

A shortened form of two words joined by an apostrophe where letters have been left out, such as can't for cannot or she's for she is.

A letter written in a word but not pronounced when the word is spoken, such as the k in knife or the b in thumb.