TSIA2 ELAR cheat sheet

Subject is the topic stated as a word or phrase; theme is a full sentence making a claim about that topic (e.g., 'pride can isolate a person').

Standard plot arc: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, resolution; a subplot mirrors or complicates the main arc.

Character types: round (multidimensional) vs. flat (single trait); dynamic (changes) vs. static (unchanged); protagonist vs. antagonist.

Point of view: first person (I/we), third limited (one character's interiority), third omniscient (multiple minds), second person (you).

Tone is the author's attitude toward the subject; mood is the feeling created in the reader; both are built from diction, imagery, and syntax.

Irony: verbal (saying the opposite of the intended meaning), situational (outcome reverses expectation), dramatic (reader knows what a character does not).

Characterization is direct when the narrator states a trait and indirect when revealed through speech, thoughts, effect on others, actions, and looks.

A symbol is a concrete object standing for an abstract idea; an allegory sustains that symbolic level across the whole work.

Figurative language: simile (comparison using like/as), metaphor (direct comparison), personification, hyperbole, oxymoron, metonymy.

Main idea is the claim the entire passage is built to support; topic is only the subject, so a correct main idea must be a full sentence with a claim.

Test a candidate main idea by asking whether every paragraph supports it; one unsupported paragraph means the choice is wrong.

Too narrow choices restate a single detail; too broad choices assert more than the passage actually covers.

Supporting details are examples, statistics, reasons, definitions, comparisons, or anecdotes that explain, illustrate, or prove the main idea.

Signal phrases for stated main ideas include 'in short,' 'the point is,' 'what this means is,' and 'above all.'

Transition words map structure: 'however/yet' signals contrast, 'therefore/thus' signals conclusion, 'for example' signals illustration, 'in addition' signals accumulation.

A valid summary covers the whole passage, stays neutral in tone, and introduces no new information or opinion.

In persuasive text the main idea is the author's position; in expository text it is the organizing claim that the sections explain.

An inference is a conclusion not stated directly, derived from textual evidence plus reasoning; the best answer needs the fewest unstated assumptions.

Eliminate choices with absolute language ('always,' 'never,' 'proves') unless the passage itself is absolute.

An assumption is an unstated belief the author must hold for the conclusion to follow; naming it exposes gaps in the argument.

Causal inferences require evidence of sequence plus a reason to rule out alternative explanations.

For 'what will the author discuss next' questions, use the final sentence's direction, tone, and any unresolved question.

Author attitude is inferred from word choice and emphasis rather than from the literal content alone.

When comparing two passages, identify points of agreement, points of conflict, and differing assumptions; conflicts often lie in assumptions, not facts.

To strengthen or weaken an argument, ask whether the added statement makes the conclusion more or less likely to be true.

Denotation is a word's dictionary meaning; connotation is its emotional or cultural association, which drives tone.

Rhetorical appeals: ethos (credibility of the writer), pathos (emotion of the audience), logos (logic and evidence).

Short, clipped sentences raise pace and tension; long cumulative sentences with layered clauses slow pace and build qualification.

Parallelism and repetition create rhythm and emphasis by making equivalent ideas look structurally equivalent.

Imagery appeals to the senses; concrete sensory detail is what produces mood rather than abstract statements.

Tone shifts are signaled by contrast words ('but,' 'yet'), paragraph breaks, dashes, and changes in sentence length.

Common tone labels to distinguish: nostalgic, wry, skeptical, indignant, somber, earnest, detached, admiring.

Active voice foregrounds the actor and reads as direct; passive voice hides or deemphasizes agency and reads as formal or evasive.

An independent clause has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought; a dependent clause has both but cannot stand alone.

Fragment: punctuated as a sentence but missing a subject, a verb, or a complete thought (e.g., 'Because the storm arrived early.').

Comma splice joins two independent clauses with only a comma; a fused sentence joins them with no punctuation at all.

Four fixes for a comma splice or run-on: period, semicolon, comma plus coordinating conjunction, or subordinate one clause.

Coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS): for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.

Subordinating conjunctions: although, because, since, when, if, while, unless, after, until, whereas.

Compound = two independent clauses; complex = independent plus dependent; compound-complex = both structures combined.

Conjunctive adverbs (however, therefore, moreover) take a semicolon before and a comma after when joining two clauses.

Restrictive (essential) relative clauses beginning with that or who take no commas; nonrestrictive clauses take commas.

The verb agrees with the grammatical subject, not with a noun in an intervening prepositional phrase.

Singular indefinite pronouns: each, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anyone, someone, nobody, nothing.

Plural indefinite pronouns: both, few, many, several. Some, most, all, none, any agree with the noun they refer to.

Compound subjects joined by 'and' take a plural verb; joined by 'or' or 'nor,' the verb agrees with the nearer subject.

'The number' is singular; 'a number' is plural.

Collective nouns (team, group, committee, jury) take a singular verb when the group acts as a single unit.

A pronoun must match its antecedent in number and gender; if the antecedent could be two nouns, rewrite rather than guess.

Use who for subjects and whom for objects; who for people, which for things, that for restrictive clauses.

A modifying phrase must sit next to the word it describes; an introductory phrase whose implied subject is not the sentence subject is a dangling modifier.

Items in a list, a comparison, or a correlative pair must share grammatical form (parallel structure).

Comparisons must be complete and logical: 'than I' versus 'than me' depends on the implied verb; compare like categories only.

Fixed correlative pairs: either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also, both...and; they must be placed before parallel elements.

If a pronoun could refer to more than one preceding noun, the sentence is ambiguous and must be revised with a specific noun.

Keep verb tense consistent unless a time shift is explicitly signaled by context or adverbial cues.

Place 'only' immediately before the word it limits; moving it changes the sentence's meaning.

Faulty predication occurs when subject and verb are not logically compatible, as in 'The reason is because' instead of 'The reason is that.'

Add transitions where ideas jump abruptly; delete transitions that misstate the relationship between sentences.

Replace vague pronouns and vague nouns ('it,' 'this,' 'thing,' 'factor') with specific referents.

Combine short repetitive sentences using subordinate clauses, appositives, or participial phrases while preserving the logical link.

Cut wordiness: 'due to the fact that' becomes 'because,' 'in the event that' becomes 'if,' 'very unique' becomes 'unique.'

Replace 'to be' verb plus abstract noun with a direct verb (e.g., 'make a decision' becomes 'decide').

Every paragraph needs unity: a sentence that does not serve the paragraph's point should be deleted or moved.

Coherence depends on a consistent organizing order: chronological, spatial, cause-effect, or order of importance.

Evidence sentences need commentary that explains how the evidence supports the thesis; evidence alone does not argue.

Introduction order: hook, brief context, then the thesis as the final sentence of the paragraph.

Body paragraph order: topic sentence, evidence, analysis explaining relevance, closing link back to the thesis.

A persuasive essay is strengthened by naming a counterargument and rebutting it rather than ignoring it.

The conclusion restates the thesis in fresh wording and widens to significance; it introduces no new evidence.

Concrete, specific examples score higher than generalized claims about 'society' or 'people.'

Spend three to five minutes outlining three body points before drafting to keep the essay organized.

Vary sentence length and openings; avoid beginning consecutive sentences with the same subject or the same word.

Reserve final minutes for proofreading fragments, comma splices, and subject-verb agreement errors.