Afghanistan Grade 12 Graduation flashcards

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Quadratic formula

For ax^2 + bx + c = 0 with a not zero, the solutions are x equals negative b plus or minus the square root of b squared minus 4ac, all divided by 2a.

Discriminant

The quantity b^2 - 4ac in a quadratic equation; positive gives two real roots, zero gives one repeated root, negative gives no real roots.

Arithmetic sequence sum

The sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic sequence equals n times the average of the first and last terms, that is n(a1 + an)/2.

Sine rule

In any triangle, each side divided by the sine of its opposite angle is constant: a/sin A equals b/sin B equals c/sin C.

Power rule of derivatives

The derivative of x raised to the power n is n times x raised to the power n minus one, valid for any real exponent n.

Ezafe construction

In Dari, an unstressed vowel -e links a noun to a following modifier, as in ketab-e sabz meaning the green book.

Ghazal

A classical Persian and Pashto lyric poem of rhymed couplets sharing one rhyme and refrain, usually five to fifteen couplets, ending with the poet's pen name.

Dari word order

Dari sentences normally place the subject first, the object next, and the verb last, so the verb closes the clause.

Object marker ra

In Dari, the particle ra follows a definite direct object to mark it, and it is omitted after indefinite objects.

Rubai

A Persian quatrain with a specific aruz meter and rhyme scheme, often expressing philosophical or lyrical ideas in four lines.

Landay

A short Pashto folk couplet of roughly nine and thirteen syllables, often on love, honor, or war, sung by women and men.

Pashto noun cases

Pashto nouns inflect mainly for direct and oblique case, and every noun carries either masculine or feminine gender.

Pashto dialect groups

Pashto is commonly divided into soft southern dialects, centered on Kandahar, and hard northern-eastern dialects, centered on Peshawar, differing in consonant pronunciation.

Rahman Baba

A seventeenth-century Pashto poet whose mystical ghazals on devotion, morality, and the inner life are central to the Pashto literary canon.

Five pillars of Islam

The core obligations of Islam: testimony of faith, ritual prayer, almsgiving, fasting in Ramadan, and pilgrimage to Mecca for those able.

Zakat rate

Zakat is generally 2.5 percent of qualifying wealth held for one lunar year above the minimum threshold called nisab.

Wudu

The ritual ablution of face, hands, head, and feet required before prayer; tayammum with clean earth substitutes when water is unavailable.

Sources of Islamic law

The principal sources are the Qur'an, the Sunna recorded in hadith, scholarly consensus called ijma, and analogical reasoning called qiyas.

Standing at Arafat

A central hajj rite on 9 Dhu al-Hijja, when pilgrims gather at the plain of Arafat in worship before the following days' rites.

Ohm's law

For a conductor at constant temperature, voltage equals current multiplied by resistance, written V equals I times R.

Mole and Avogadro's number

One mole of any substance contains 6.02 times ten to the twenty-third elementary particles, and its mass in grams equals the molar mass.

Photosynthesis equation

Six carbon dioxide molecules plus six water molecules, using light energy in chloroplasts, produce one glucose molecule and six oxygen molecules.

pH scale

pH equals the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration; values below 7 are acidic, 7 is neutral, and above 7 is basic at 25 degrees Celsius.

Newton's second law

The net force on an object equals its mass multiplied by its acceleration, so acceleration grows with force and shrinks with greater mass.

Afghanistan's neighbors

Afghanistan borders Iran, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, and meets China along the narrow Wakhan Corridor.

Hindu Kush

A major mountain range running southwest to northeast across Afghanistan, separating northern drainage toward the Amu Darya from southern basins.

Amu Darya

A major river forming most of Afghanistan's northern border with Central Asian states and draining the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush.

Karez irrigation

A traditional system of gently sloping underground channels that carries groundwater from foothills to fields, reducing evaporation in arid regions.

Durrani Empire

Founded in 1747 by Ahmad Shah Durrani after the death of Nadir Shah, it is conventionally treated as the origin of the modern Afghan state.

Third conditional

A sentence pattern using if plus past perfect in the condition and would have plus past participle in the result, describing unreal past situations.

Passive voice

A construction formed with the verb be plus a past participle, used when the action matters more than the doer, as in the letter was written.

Separation of powers

The division of state authority among legislative, executive, and judicial branches so that no single body holds all governing power.

Rule of law

The principle that all people and institutions, including the government itself, are accountable to laws that are publicly known and fairly applied.