QCAA Physical Education cheat sheet

Motor skill classification uses three continua: gross-to-fine (muscle groups involved), open-to-closed (environment predictability), and discrete-to-continuous (clear start and end points versus no defined endpoints).

Fitts and Posner's three stages of learning: cognitive (large errors, conscious processing, needs demonstration), associative (refining technique, fewer errors, feedback-driven), autonomous (automatic execution, attention freed for tactics).

Gentile's two-dimensional taxonomy classifies skills by environmental context (regulatory conditions and variability) and action requirements (body orientation and object manipulation).

Types of practice: massed (longer sessions, less rest), distributed (rest intervals between trials), blocked (same skill repeated), random (skills interleaved), and variable (conditions altered) - random and variable practice generally improve retention and transfer at the cost of slower acquisition.

Feedback: intrinsic (sensory information from the performer) versus augmented (external, e.g. coach or video); knowledge of results concerns outcome, knowledge of performance concerns technique.

Feedback frequency: too frequent augmented feedback can create dependency; faded or bandwidth feedback supports learner self-regulation and retention.

Whole versus part practice: part practice suits low-organization, serial skills; whole practice suits highly organised, fast, discrete skills where subcomponents interact.

Transfer of learning: positive (one skill assists another), negative (interferes), and zero (no effect); near transfer occurs between similar skills, far transfer between dissimilar contexts.

Retention and transfer tests, not performance during acquisition, are the standard measures of whether learning has actually occurred.

Newton's laws applied to sport: first law (inertia - a body remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted on by a net force), second law (F = ma, acceleration is proportional to net force and inversely proportional to mass), third law (action–reaction forces are equal and opposite).

Linear kinematics quantities: displacement (vector, change in position), distance (scalar, path length), velocity (displacement/time), speed (distance/time), and acceleration (change in velocity/time).

Projectile motion: horizontal velocity is constant (ignoring air resistance) while vertical velocity changes at g ≈ 9.8 m/s²; range is maximised near a 45° release angle when launch and landing heights are equal, and optimal angle rises above 45° when release height exceeds landing height.

Angular kinematics: angular displacement (radians), angular velocity (ω = Δθ/Δt) and angular acceleration; linear velocity of a rotating point equals v = ωr, so a longer radius gives greater linear speed at the same angular velocity.

Torque (moment) = force × perpendicular distance from the axis; a larger moment arm increases the turning effect of a muscle or applied force.

Levers: first class (axis between force and load), second class (load between axis and force, mechanical advantage), third class (force between axis and load, most common in the human body, favours speed and range over force).

Moment of inertia depends on mass and its distribution about the axis; angular momentum (L = Iω) is conserved when no external torque acts, so reducing moment of inertia (tucking) increases angular velocity.

Summation of forces: sequential summation transfers momentum through body segments in order (e.g. hips to shoulders to arm); simultaneous summation applies forces together, as in a push.

Stability is increased by a larger base of support, a lower centre of mass, and a centre of mass positioned over the base; the line of gravity must fall within the base for balance.

ATP is the immediate energy currency; resynthesis occurs via three systems: ATP–PC (phosphagen), anaerobic glycolysis, and aerobic oxidation.

ATP–PC system: uses stored creatine phosphate, no oxygen required, no fatiguing by-products, dominant for maximal efforts of roughly 0–10 seconds.

Anaerobic glycolysis: glucose breakdown to pyruvate then lactate, no oxygen required, dominant for high-intensity efforts of roughly 10 seconds to 2 minutes, limited by hydrogen ion accumulation and lactate.

Aerobic system: carbohydrate and fat oxidised via glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain; dominant for sustained submaximal work beyond roughly 2–3 minutes and the main energy source at rest.

Energy yield: aerobic oxidation of one glucose molecule yields substantially more ATP than anaerobic glycolysis (about 30–32 versus 2 net ATP), explaining the aerobic system's greater capacity.

Cardiovascular responses to exercise: increased heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output, redistributed blood flow to working muscle, and increased systolic blood pressure with relatively stable diastolic pressure.

Respiratory responses: increased ventilation, tidal volume and respiratory rate, with oxygen extraction rising; oxygen deficit at the start of exercise is repaid by excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC).

Acute responses are immediate, short-term changes during exercise; chronic adaptations are long-term structural and functional changes from repeated training, such as increased stroke volume, capillarisation, mitochondrial density and blood volume.

Fat oxidation supplies a greater proportion of energy at lower intensities, while carbohydrate contribution increases as intensity rises; the crossover point reflects this shift.

Training principles: specificity, overload, progression, reversibility, individuality, variety, and recovery - a program must apply overload while respecting recovery to avoid overtraining.

FITT framework: Frequency, Intensity, Time, Type; intensity can be prescribed as %1RM for strength, %HRmax or RPE for aerobic work, and speed or pace for anaerobic work.

Aerobic training methods include continuous training, fartlek, interval training and circuit training; anaerobic and speed work uses short, high-intensity intervals with long recovery.

Strength training variables: load (%1RM), repetitions, sets, rest intervals, and tempo; heavier loads with low repetitions develop maximal strength, moderate loads with higher repetitions develop hypertrophy and muscular endurance.

Periodisation structures training into macrocycles (season or year), mesocycles (weeks to months) and microcycles (typically a week), manipulating volume and intensity to peak for competition.

Plyometric training uses the stretch-shortening cycle - eccentric loading followed by rapid concentric contraction - to develop explosive power; adequate base strength and landing technique reduce injury risk.

Warm-up raises muscle temperature, heart rate and blood flow and includes general and skill-specific components; cool-down assists venous return and gradual return to resting physiological state.

Progressive overload must be applied gradually; excessive load without adequate recovery produces fatigue, performance decline and increased injury risk.

Motivation types: intrinsic (internal satisfaction) versus extrinsic (external rewards); extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation when perceived as controlling.

Self-determination theory identifies autonomy, competence and relatedness as basic psychological needs underpinning intrinsic motivation.

Goal setting: SMART or SMARTER goals (specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound, evaluated, reviewed); outcome, performance and process goals serve different functions, and process goals are most controllable.

Arousal theories: drive theory (performance rises linearly with arousal), inverted-U hypothesis (optimal arousal at a moderate level, varying by task complexity), and catastrophe theory (performance collapses beyond an optimal point).

Individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) holds that the ideal arousal level differs between performers and situations rather than being universally moderate.

Anxiety: state versus trait, and cognitive (worry) versus somatic (physiological) components; interventions include relaxation, breathing control, imagery, self-talk and pre-performance routines.

Self-confidence is situation-specific; Bandura's sources of self-efficacy are mastery experiences, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological or affective states, with mastery experiences the strongest.

Attribution theory: attributions along locus of causality, stability and controllability influence motivation; attributing success to controllable, internal factors such as effort supports persistence.

Team cohesion has task and social dimensions; cohesion is associated with performance, with task cohesion generally the stronger predictor in interactive team sports.

Socialisation into sport occurs through primary agents (family, peers) and secondary agents (schools, media, clubs, coaches), with family influence strongest in childhood.

Gender: participation patterns and media coverage differ by gender, with male sport historically receiving greater broadcast exposure and prize money; participation gaps have narrowed but persist in some settings.

Socioeconomic status affects access through cost of equipment, fees, transport and facilities, producing participation gradients between higher- and lower-income groups.

Cultural and ethnic factors shape sport choice and access, including culturally valued activities, religious observance considerations (e.g. dress, fasting), and language or inclusion barriers.

Race and ethnicity: underrepresentation in leadership and coaching roles and stereotyping about suitability for certain positions or sports remain documented issues.

Disability: participation is influenced by facility accessibility, availability of adapted equipment, classification systems, and attitudes of coaches and peers.

Media influences include agenda-setting (which sports receive coverage), commercialisation, sponsorship, and the framing of athletes; media can both promote and distort participation.

Commercialisation and sponsorship create revenue and exposure but can prioritise broadcast-friendly sports and events over grassroots participation.

Barriers and enablers framework: barriers may be personal (time, cost, confidence), social (norms, support) or environmental (facilities, transport, accessibility); enablers operate at the same levels.

WHO physical activity guidance for adults: at least 150–300 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity, or 75–150 minutes of vigorous activity, or an equivalent combination, per week, plus muscle-strengthening activity on at least two days.

For children and adolescents aged 5–17, WHO recommends at least 60 minutes per day of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, on average, plus vigorous aerobic and strengthening activities at least three days per week.

Physical activity is any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure; exercise is planned, structured, repetitive activity aimed at improving or maintaining fitness.

Health-related fitness components: cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body composition.

Skill-related fitness components: speed, agility, power, balance, coordination, and reaction time.

Sedentary behaviour is distinct from physical inactivity; prolonged sitting carries health risk independent of whether activity guidelines are met.

Benefits of regular activity include reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, some cancers, and improved mental health, sleep and bone density; risks of inactivity include obesity and metabolic disease.

Measuring activity: subjective methods (questionnaires, diaries) are inexpensive but subject to recall bias, while objective methods (accelerometers, pedometers, heart-rate monitors) are more accurate but costlier and may miss some activities such as swimming.

Social and mental well-being benefits include improved mood, reduced symptoms of anxiety and depression, and increased social connection through group participation.