Systems Engineering and Management
What to master
The life cycle from needs to disposal: stakeholder needs, concept of operations, requirements (functional, performance, interface, constraints) with traceability, functional analysis and allocation, architecture and interface definition, trade studies, design reviews, verification (does it meet the specification?), validation (does it meet the need?), integration, and configuration management. On the management side: work breakdown structures, CPM/PERT scheduling, resource leveling, risk management (identify, analyze, plan response, monitor), earned value management (SV = EV - PV, CV = EV - AC, SPI = EV/PV, CPI = EV/AC), and organizational structures (functional, project, matrix).
Traps
- Confusing verification with validation: verification is "built right," validation is "right system."
- Using percent complete by opinion instead of earned value.
- Computing SPI or CPI with actual cost in the numerator.
- Treating risk as threats only; opportunities count, and every risk needs probability and consequence.
- Allowing requirements creep by accepting informal changes without baseline control.
- Reporting a schedule ahead when scope was quietly cut.
Worked example
PV = $400k, EV = $360k, AC = $420k. SPI = 360/400 = 0.90 (behind schedule). CPI = 360/420 = 0.857 (over budget). EAC = BAC/CPI = $1.0M/0.857 = $1.17M. The project is late and spending faster than it is earning.
Rule of thumb
Every requirement should trace upward to a need and downward to a verification method. If it traces to neither, it is probably a design solution in disguise.