ICAS English cheat sheet

Synonym = same or similar meaning; antonym = opposite meaning; use the surrounding sentence to decide which fits.

Prefix meanings: un-/in-/dis-/non- = not; re- = again; pre- = before; sub- = under; super- = above; anti- = against; mis- = wrongly.

Suffix meanings: -able/-ible = capable of; -ful = full of; -less = without; -ous = having the quality; -tion/-sion = noun of action; -ly = in that manner.

Homophone pairs to distinguish: their/there/they're; principal/principle; stationary/stationery; affect (verb)/effect (noun); its (possessive)/it's (it is).

Figure of speech rule: simile uses like/as; metaphor states comparison directly; personification gives human traits to non-human things; hyperbole is exaggeration; onomatopoeia imitates sound.

Common roots: bio = life; graph = write; tele = far; phon = sound; aud = hear; spec = see; port = carry; dict = say.

Cloze procedure: read the full sentence, identify the part of speech required, then test each option for both grammar and meaning.

Shades of meaning: choose the most precise word; 'said', 'whispered', 'muttered' and 'declared' differ in volume, attitude and formality.

Main idea = what the passage is mostly about; it is often stated in the first or last sentence and is the answer to 'What is this text about?'

Supporting details answer who, what, when, where, why or how and must be directly stated or clearly implied in the text.

Inference formula: textual evidence + prior knowledge = conclusion; the conclusion is not explicitly stated.

Author's purpose categories: inform (facts), persuade (opinion and emotion), entertain (story), instruct (directions).

Tone = writer's attitude; mood = reader's feeling; both are identified from word choice, details and punctuation.

Sequence signal words: first, then, next, after, finally, dates; cause-effect signal words: because, therefore, so, as a result.

Fact = verifiable statement; opinion = judgment or belief, often marked by words such as best, worst, should, beautiful or seems.

Compare/contrast signal words: both, similarly, like, also (alike); however, whereas, unlike, but (different).

Unknown word in context: use the sentence's grammar and the surrounding words to infer meaning before choosing an option.

Simple sentence = one independent clause; compound = two or more independent clauses; complex = independent + dependent clause; compound-complex = both.

FANBOYS = for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so; these coordinating conjunctions join words, phrases or independent clauses of equal rank.

Subordinating conjunctions include because, although, since, when, if, while, unless, after, before and that; they introduce dependent clauses.

Run-on (fused) sentence = two independent clauses with no punctuation or conjunction; fix with a period, semicolon or coordinating conjunction.

Comma splice = two independent clauses joined only by a comma; fix with a period, semicolon or conjunction.

Fragment = missing subject, missing verb or incomplete thought; a dependent clause alone is a fragment.

Subject-verb agreement: singular subject takes singular verb; ignore prepositional phrases between subject and verb; each, everyone, neither and either are singular.

Pronoun-antecedent agreement: pronoun must match antecedent in number and gender; 'everyone' takes 'his or her' in formal writing.

Parallel structure: items in a list or comparison must share the same grammatical form, such as all nouns, all infinitives or all -ing forms.

Basic statement order: subject + verb + object; adjectives precede the noun they modify; adverbs can move within the sentence.

Modifier rule: place a modifier next to the word it describes; a dangling modifier has no noun to attach to.

Pronoun case: subject pronouns (I, he, she, they, who) for subjects; object pronouns (me, him, her, them, whom) for objects and after prepositions.

Active voice = subject performs the action; passive voice = subject receives the action, formed with be + past participle (+ by agent).

Direct speech uses quotation marks and the speaker's exact words; indirect speech removes quotation marks and usually shifts tense and pronouns.

Question formation: auxiliary verb precedes the subject (Do you...?); a wh-word comes first in wh-questions.

Negation: place 'not' after the auxiliary verb; double negatives (e.g., 'didn't see nothing') are nonstandard in formal English.

Conditionals: if + present, will + base verb (first conditional); if + past, would + base verb (second conditional).

Comparative/superlative: -er/-est for short adjectives; more/most for longer adjectives; irregular forms include good/better/best and bad/worse/worst.

Voice = the writer's personality and attitude, created through diction, sentence length, punctuation and figurative language.

Active voice formula: subject + verb + object; passive voice formula: subject + be + past participle + by agent.

Use active voice for directness and clarity; use passive voice when the doer is unknown, unimportant or deliberately hidden.

Formal voice: no contractions, no slang, no first-person pronouns in academic writing, precise vocabulary and complete sentences.

Informal voice: contractions, colloquialisms, short sentences, direct address and personal pronouns.

Diction affects voice: 'kids' is informal, 'children' is neutral, 'offspring' is formal or scientific.

Tone words to identify voice include sarcastic, earnest, nostalgic, objective, indignant and humorous.

Consistency rule: maintain the same person (first, second or third) and tense throughout a piece of writing.