Israel CAA CPL Theory Exam cheat sheet

ICAO Annex 2 classifies airspace as A–G: Class A permits IFR only, Classes B–G permit both IFR and VFR; classes C–G apply in Israel with controlled airspace generally Classes C and D and CTR/CTA boundaries published in the Israel AIP.

Semi-circular rule (cruising levels): magnetic track 000–179° use odd thousands (FL 010, 030, 050…); track 180–359° use even thousands (FL 020, 040, 060…); IFR in RVSM airspace uses the same parity with 1000 ft separation.

VMC minima below 10 000 ft AMSL in Class C–G: flight visibility 5 km, distance from cloud 1500 m horizontally and 300 m vertically; at or above 10 000 ft: 8 km visibility and 1500 m/300 m cloud clearance.

Special VFR in a control zone requires ATC clearance, ground visibility of at least 1500 m (Israel CAA practice) and remaining clear of cloud; it is not available at night unless the unit is authorised.

Quadrantal rule for VFR magnetic tracks: 0–89° odd + 500 ft; 90–179° even + 500 ft; 180–269° odd + 500 ft; 270–359° even + 500 ft, above 3000 ft AGL.

Aircraft must be operated with a valid Certificate of Airworthiness, Certificate of Registration, and crew licences; the CPL holder may act as PIC of aircraft engaged in non-commercial operations and, when appropriately rated, commercial operations under the AOC.

Right-of-way: converging aircraft of the same category - the one on the right has priority; head-on - both turn right; overtaking - the overtaken aircraft has priority; landing aircraft have priority over aircraft on the ground.

Position reports to ATC contain: aircraft identification, position and time, flight level or altitude, next position and ETA, and the succeeding significant point; report over compulsory reporting points unless radar identified.

Semi-monocoque structure: the skin carries part of the load with stringers and frames; fail-safe design uses crack-stoppers and multiple load paths, while damage-tolerant design permits inspection-based continued airworthiness.

Pitot-static system errors: blocked pitot with static clear gives airspeed reading as an altimeter (climbs → increasing IAS); blocked static with pitot clear causes IAS to over-read in a climb and under-read in a descent.

Alternator output is controlled by the voltage regulator; a tripped alternator field or over-voltage relay causes loss of DC generation and the battery then supplies essential bus only - load shedding is required.

Magneto checks at run-up: maximum drop typically 150 rpm per magneto and 50 rpm difference between them; a dead-cut (no drop) indicates a grounding fault and the aircraft must not fly.

Constant-speed propeller: oil pressure acting on the propeller dome against springs and counterweights sets blade angle; loss of oil pressure typically drives the blades to fine pitch/high rpm (or to feather in some designs).

Hydraulic system: relief valve protects against overpressure; accumulator damps pressure pulses and supplies emergency pressure for a limited number of brake or gear applications.

Emergency equipment: ELT transmits on 121.5/243 MHz (406 MHz for COSPAS-SARSAT), fire extinguishers are rated by agent (Halon 1211/1301 or dry powder), and portable oxygen is required for crew above 10 000 ft cabin altitude for prolonged periods.

Electrical bonding and static dischargers reduce precipitation static and protect against lightning; a lightning strike typically enters and exits at extremities and can damage composite structures.

True airspeed: TAS ≈ IAS × (1 + 0.02 × altitude in thousands of feet) as a rough rule at ISA; exact TAS = IAS × √(ρ0/ρ).

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 × (OAT − ISA temperature at that level); ISA temperature = 15 °C − 2 °C per 1000 ft.

Fuel planning: trip fuel + taxi + contingency (typically 5 % of trip) + alternate fuel + final reserve (30 min holding for turbine, 45 min for piston) + additional fuel.

Wind triangle: headwind/tailwind component = wind speed × cos(angle between wind and track); crosswind component = wind speed × sin(angle); use the flight computer or E6B for drift and ground speed.

Point of no return (PNR): time to PNR = (fuel available × GS out) / (GS out + GS back), assuming equal fuel consumption out and back.

Equal time point (ETP) to a diversion airfield: T = D / (GS out + GS back) × (GS back) where D is distance between the two airfields; used for ETOPS and en-route diversion planning.

Climb and descent gradients: rate of climb (ft/min) = gradient (%) × ground speed (kt) × 101.3 / 60; a 3° ILS glidepath corresponds to about 318 ft/NM.

Mass and balance: %MAC = (LEMAC to CG distance) / MAC × 100; CG must remain within the certified forward and aft limits for takeoff, in-flight and landing configurations.

Hypoxia: above 10 000 ft without supplemental oxygen, night vision deteriorates first, then judgement and coordination; time of useful consciousness at FL 350 is 30–60 s, at FL 250 about 3–5 min.

Hyperventilation produces dizziness, tingling and tetany; treatment is to slow the breathing rate or breathe into a bag; it can mimic hypoxia and must be distinguished in flight.

Spatial disorientation: the somatogyral illusion (post-rotational) and somatogravic illusion (false climb/descent sensation during acceleration) are the most frequent causes of vestibular illusions in IMC.

Cabin decompression: the first action is to don the oxygen mask and establish communication; the pilot must not delay oxygen for radio calls; emergency descent to FL 100 or MSA follows.

Circadian rhythm: the body clock is entrained to light; eastward travel causes phase advance (harder), westward phase delay; fatigue accumulates with cumulative duty hours.

Carbon monoxide poisoning: symptoms include headache, confusion and cherry-red skin; suspect it when exhaust odours or heater smells are present - open vents and use 100 % oxygen.

Stress and arousal follow the Yerkes–Dodson curve: performance is best at moderate arousal; high arousal narrows attention and increases error rates.

Vision: the fovea handles detail and colour, the periphery detects motion and is better at night (rod cells); scanning should use 10° sectors with 2–3 s fixation to counter empty-field myopia.

ISA: sea level temperature 15 °C, pressure 1013.25 hPa, lapse rate 1.98 °C/1000 ft up to 36 090 ft (tropopause), then isothermal −56.5 °C.

QNH is the altimeter setting that reads elevation on the ground; QFE reads height above the reference datum; QNE (1013.25) is used above the transition level for flight levels.

Pressure systems: in the Northern Hemisphere, wind flows anticlockwise around a low and clockwise around a high; surface friction causes inflow of about 30° over land and 10° over sea.

Geostrophic wind blows parallel to isobars; the Coriolis force balances the pressure gradient force; wind backs with descent (surface friction) and veers with height in the Northern Hemisphere.

Cloud types: cumulonimbus produces severe turbulence, icing, hail and microbursts; the anvil and mammatus indicate a mature cell; avoid by at least 20 NM (10 NM below the anvil).

Icing: clear (rime) ice forms in stratiform clouds at −2 to −10 °C with large droplets; carburettor ice can form at temperatures between −7 °C and +21 °C with high humidity.

Fronts: a cold front moves faster, has a steep slope (1:50) and narrow band of showers; a warm front has a shallow slope (1:150) and wide precipitation; an occluded front combines both.

Mountain waves: form when stable air crosses a ridge at 15–30 kt perpendicular to the ridge; lee waves produce severe turbulence, rotor clouds and altimeter errors of up to 300 ft.

Great circle: the shortest distance between two points on the Earth's surface; the great circle track changes continuously; rhumb line maintains constant track but is longer except on the equator or meridians.

1 minute of latitude = 1 NM = 1852 m; 1 minute of longitude = 1 NM × cos(latitude); the Earth's circumference at the equator is about 21 600 NM.

Departure (distance along a parallel) = change of longitude in minutes × cos(latitude); use this for dead reckoning legs along a parallel.

Mercator chart: rhumb lines are straight, scale increases with latitude, and great circles are concave to the equator; the convergence factor is sec(latitude).

Lambert conformal conic chart: two standard parallels, scale is correct on both; great circles are nearly straight; used for high-latitude and mid-latitude navigation.

Heading, track and drift: track = heading + drift (positive right); drift = (crosswind component / TAS) × 60 degrees approximately; wind correction angle = drift.

Magnetic variation: easterly variation is subtracted from true to obtain magnetic (east is least); deviation is aircraft-specific and taken from the compass swing card.

Dead reckoning: GS = distance / time; fuel flow × time gives fuel used; a 1-in-60 error in track causes 1 NM cross-track error per 60 NM flown.

ILS: localiser provides lateral guidance on 108.10–111.95 MHz (odd tenths), glidepath on UHF 329.15–335 MHz; CAT I decision height 200 ft, CAT II 100 ft, CAT III below 100 ft.

VOR: 108.0–117.95 MHz, line-of-sight range; CDI shows the selected radial; TO/FROM flag indicates whether the aircraft is flying toward or away from the station.

NDB/ADF: 190–1750 kHz; the ADF needle points toward the station; relative bearing + heading = magnetic bearing to the station.

DME: measures slant range in NM; error is negligible at long range but significant at high altitude close to the station (e.g. 6 NM at 36 000 ft over the station).

RNAV/GNSS: RAIM must be available for approach; the CDI sensitivity for LPV is 0.3 NM; for LNAV it is 0.3 NM full scale; baro-VNAV requires temperature correction below ISA.

Holding pattern: standard turns are right; entry depends on the aircraft's heading relative to the inbound course - direct, parallel or teardrop; the outbound leg is 1 min (or 1.5 min above 14 000 ft).

Approach minima: DA/DH for precision approaches, MDA for non-precision; missed approach point is where the missed approach is initiated; the MAPt must not be passed below MDA.

Transponder squawks: 7500 unlawful interference, 7600 radio failure, 7700 general emergency; in radio failure in IMC, follow the last assigned route and altitude and squawk 7600.

Takeoff performance: V1 is the decision speed; a failure before V1 permits a stop within the runway; after V1 the takeoff must continue; V2 is the takeoff safety speed.

Landing performance: the landing distance required must not exceed the landing distance available × 0.6 for a dry runway (or 0.7 for a wet runway with the appropriate factor).

Checklist discipline: use the challenge-and-response flow; critical items (flight controls, flaps, trim, doors) are checked by both pilots; a sterile cockpit applies below 10 000 ft.

Fuel management: declare a fuel emergency when the fuel remaining is below the final reserve; the pilot must land at the nearest suitable aerodrome.

Emergency descent: don oxygen masks, establish communication, set transponder 7700, descend at VMO/MMO or the published emergency descent speed, and level off at 10 000 ft or MSA.

Runway incursion prevention: read back all hold-short and runway-crossing clearances; use exterior lights and listen on the tower frequency before crossing.

CRM: use briefings, callouts and cross-checks; assertiveness and workload distribution reduce error; the captain's authority is not a substitute for crew coordination.

Contaminated runway: use the contaminated runway performance data; reverse thrust and anti-skid; braking action reports of 'poor' require a landing distance assessment.

Lift L = ½ ρ V² S CL; induced drag Di = L² / (½ ρ V² π b² e); induced drag is highest at low speed and high angle of attack.

Critical angle of attack is the angle at which the wing stalls; it is independent of weight, speed and density altitude - a heavier aircraft stalls at a higher speed but the same AoA.

Load factor n = L/W = 1/cos(bank angle) in a level turn; a 60° bank gives n = 2; stall speed increases by √n (e.g. 1.41 × VS at 60° bank).

Stability: longitudinal stability is provided by the horizontal tail; a forward CG increases stability but raises stall speed and pitch force; an aft CG reduces stability.

Mach effects: critical Mach number is where airflow over the wing reaches M = 1; shock waves cause drag rise, buffet and Mach tuck; sweepback raises Mcrit.

Boundary layer: laminar flow has low friction but separates easily; turbulent flow has higher friction but resists separation; vortex generators re-energise the boundary layer.

Asymmetric thrust: with one engine failed, the aircraft yaws toward the failed engine; the minimum control speed VMC is the speed at which directional control is maintainable with full rudder.

Ground effect: within one wingspan of the ground, induced drag decreases and lift increases; the aircraft may float during landing and requires more distance to climb out of ground effect.

Standard phraseology: use ICAO Doc 9432; read back clearances containing altitude, heading, speed, frequency and runway; the word 'roger' means the message was received, not that it was understood.

Position report format: aircraft identification, position and time, flight level/altitude, next position and ETA, and the following significant point.

IFR clearances: CRAFT - Clearance limit, Route, Altitude, Frequency, Transponder; read back the full clearance and confirm 'readback correct'.

Radio failure: squawk 7600; in VMC continue VFR and land at the nearest suitable aerodrome; in IMC follow the last assigned clearance and the published lost-communication procedure.

Emergency: MAYDAY (distress) repeated three times for life-threatening situations; PAN PAN (urgency) for situations not immediately dangerous; both are spoken on 121.5 MHz.

Frequency change: confirm the new frequency and call sign; if no contact, return to the previous frequency and advise; do not leave the assigned frequency without clearance.

Transponder: squawk assigned by ATC; mode C altitude is pressure altitude referenced to 1013.25 hPa; the ident button should be used only when requested.

VFR flight following: request 'flight following' with position, altitude and destination; ATC may provide traffic information but does not provide separation from other VFR traffic.

Call sign format: aircraft registration or flight identification followed by the type; on first contact use the full call sign, then abbreviate to the last three characters (e.g. '4X-ABC' becomes 'ABC').

Readback: read back all safety-related clearances (runway, hold short, altitude, heading, frequency, squawk); use the phrase 'wilco' only for instructions you will comply with.

Departure call: 'Tower, [call sign], ready for departure, runway [number]'; after clearance read back the runway and any departure instructions.

Position reporting: give position, altitude, next position and ETA; use standard phraseology such as 'abeam', 'overhead', 'downwind', 'final'.

Emergency call: 'MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY, [call sign], [nature of emergency], [position], [altitude], [intentions]'; then follow ATC instructions and read back.

Weather and ATIS: state the ATIS letter received; if the ATIS is not received, request the information; do not read back the entire ATIS.

Test phraseology: 'radio check' with a readability scale of 1–5; 'loud and clear' means readability 5; 'say again' requests repetition.

Pilot-controller misunderstanding: use 'confirm' or 'say again' rather than guessing; if a clearance is unclear, request clarification before acting.