APTET Paper 2 key terms

Arrangement in which children with disabilities, marginalised backgrounds and varied learning needs study together in regular classrooms, with curriculum, teaching methods and assessment adapted so that every child participates and progresses.

School assessment system that is continuous, covering the whole year through regular activities, and comprehensive, covering scholastic subjects plus co-scholastic areas such as attitudes, values, health and life skills.

Vygotsky's term for the distance between what a learner can accomplish alone and what the same learner can accomplish with guidance from a teacher or more capable peer; instruction is most useful inside this range.

Temporary support - hints, models, worked examples, prompting questions or partly solved steps - given so a learner can complete a task slightly beyond independent ability, then gradually withdrawn as competence grows.

View that learners build understanding actively by linking new experience to existing knowledge instead of receiving information passively; classrooms therefore stress exploration, questioning, discussion and hands-on activity rather than lecture and memorisation.

Persistent difficulty in acquiring one academic skill - reading (dyslexia), writing (dysgraphia) or arithmetic (dyscalculia) - despite average intelligence, normal senses and adequate schooling; it is neurological, not caused by laziness.

Assessment carried out during teaching - quizzes, oral questions, observation, classwork - whose purpose is to reveal gaps and guide the next lesson; descriptive feedback matters more than marks or grades.

Drive to perform an activity because it is interesting, enjoyable or personally meaningful, rather than for rewards, marks or fear of punishment; it usually produces more persistent and deeper learning than external pressure.

Hierarchical classification of learning objectives in the cognitive domain - remembering, understanding, applying, analysing, evaluating, creating - used to plan questions and tasks that demand progressively higher-order thinking from students.

Small-scale, repeated inquiry by a practising teacher into a problem in their own classroom - planning a change, acting, observing and reflecting - to improve local practice rather than to produce generalisable theory.

Indian law making free and compulsory elementary education a fundamental right for children aged six to fourteen; it lays down norms for pupil-teacher ratio, infrastructure, no detention, and School Management Committees.

Telugu sound junction in which the final vowel or consonant of one word combines with the initial sound of the next to form a single word, as in రామ + ఆలయం = రామాలయం; grammar texts classify types such as సవర్ణదీర్ఘ, గుణ, వృద్ధి and త్రిక.

Compound word formed by joining two or more words in which the case ending of the earlier member is dropped and the whole functions as one noun, e.g., తల్లిదండ్రులు; classified as తత్పురుష, బహువ్రీహి, ద్వంద్వ, కర్మధారయ and ద్విగు.

Figure of speech that heightens the beauty of poetic expression; అర్థాలంకారాలు such as ఉపమ, రూపక and అతిశయోక్తి work through meaning, while శబ్దాలంకారాలు such as వృత్యనుప్రాస work through repetition of sound.

Telugu prosody: the system of rules governing గణాలు, యతి, ప్రాస and the counting of అక్షరాలు that decides whether a poem is composed in a recognised metre such as ఆటవెలది, తేటగీతి or కందం.

Grammatical case marker in Telugu showing the relation of a noun to the verb; the eight cases run from ప్రథమా to సంబోధనా, marked by suffixes such as ను, చేత, కొఱకు, నుండి, యొక్క, లోను and ఓ.

Synonyms: two or more different words carrying nearly the same meaning in a given context, such as పుష్పం, కుసుమం and సుమం for flower; useful for vocabulary expansion, poetry appreciation and precis writing.

Smallest unit of sound that can distinguish meaning in a language, such as /p/ and /b/ in pat and bat; English has around forty-four phonemes, which is why letters and sounds do not map one to one.

Smallest meaningful unit of a word; a free morpheme can stand alone (book) while a bound morpheme must attach to another (un- in unhappy, -s in books), and morphology studies how they combine.

Set of rules by which words are ordered and grouped into phrases and sentences in a language; syntax explains why 'The dog bit the boy' is grammatical but the scrambled order of the same words is not.

Approach in which the goal of a language lesson is real communication, so learners use English in meaningful tasks, pair work and role play; grammar is taught to support use rather than as an end in itself.

Rapid reading of a text to grasp its general idea or gist without attending to every word, typically by looking at headings, first sentences and key phrases; used before detailed reading or when selecting material.

Procedure in which words are deleted from a continuous passage at regular intervals or selectively, and the learner supplies them from context; it measures reading comprehension and grammatical awareness rather than isolated vocabulary.

Value that a digit carries because of its position in a number; in 3,472 the 4 means four hundreds while in 4,372 it means four thousands, a concept foundational to algorithms for addition, subtraction and regrouping.

Largest number that divides two or more given numbers exactly, found by prime factorisation or the Euclidean algorithm; used to simplify fractions and to solve sharing and grouping problems.

In a right-angled triangle, the square on the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares on the other two sides (a² + b² = c²); its converse identifies right angles in triangles with given side lengths.

Comparison of two quantities of the same kind by division, written a : b; a ratio is a pure number without units, and equal ratios form a proportion, which underpins problems on scale, mixture and speed.

Equation true for all values of its variables, unlike a conditional equation; standard identities such as (a + b)² = a² + 2ab + b² allow expansion and factorisation without multiplying term by term.

Process in green plants where chlorophyll traps light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose, releasing oxygen; it stores energy in food and is the entry point of energy into most food chains.

To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction: forces always occur in pairs acting on two different bodies, which explains the recoil of a gun, swimming and rocket propulsion.

At constant temperature, the current through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends, so V = IR; resistance is measured in ohms.

Angular coordinates locating a place on the globe: latitude measures distance north or south of the equator in degrees, longitude measures distance east or west of a chosen prime meridian, and their crossing fixes a point.

Seasonal reversal of prevailing winds, most marked over South Asia, caused by differential heating of land and sea; the south-west monsoon brings most of India's rainfall between June and September and shapes its agriculture.

Basic freedoms guaranteed to citizens by Part III of the Indian Constitution - equality, freedom, protection against exploitation, religion, culture and education, and constitutional remedies - enforceable in courts through writs.

Guidelines in Part IV of the Indian Constitution directing governments to promote social and economic welfare, such as free legal aid and village panchayats; they are not enforceable in courts but are fundamental in governance.

Three-tier system of rural local self-government - village panchayat, panchayat samiti (mandal) and zilla parishad - established by the 73rd Constitutional Amendment, 1992, with reserved seats and a State Election Commission.

Theory that the earth's rigid outer shell is broken into plates that drift over the semi-fluid mantle; their collision, divergence and sliding explain fold mountains, earthquakes, volcanoes and mid-ocean ridges.

Programme from the mid-1960s that raised Indian foodgrain output sharply through high-yielding wheat and rice varieties, assured irrigation, chemical fertilisers and credit; praised for food security, criticised for regional and ecological imbalance.