BSEH SS Biotechnology key terms

The use of living organisms, cells, or their components to make products or provide services of practical value, ranging from fermented foods and antibiotics to gene-edited crops and diagnostic tests.

A set of laboratory methods for joining DNA fragments from different sources and introducing them into a host cell, so the host expresses the new genetic information.

A bacterial enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific recognition sequence, producing either sticky or blunt ends; widely used to create fragments for cloning and mapping.

A DNA sequence that reads the same on one strand in the 5' to 3' direction as its complement does in the same direction, forming the recognition site for most type II restriction enzymes.

Short single-stranded overhangs left when a restriction enzyme makes a staggered cut; they base-pair with complementary overhangs so fragments can be joined efficiently.

An enzyme that seals nicks in DNA by forming phosphodiester bonds between adjacent nucleotides, used to join a gene into a cut vector during cloning.

A small circular extrachromosomal DNA molecule engineered to carry a foreign gene into bacteria, typically containing an origin of replication, a selectable marker, and a multiple cloning site.

A gene carried on a vector that lets transformed cells be identified, commonly an antibiotic-resistance gene or a reporter gene whose product is easily detected.

The uptake of free DNA from the environment by a cell, or the deliberate introduction of recombinant plasmid DNA into bacteria or other cells using chemical, heat-shock, or electrical methods.

Cells made temporarily permeable to DNA, for example by calcium chloride treatment or electroporation, so that plasmid DNA can enter them efficiently during transformation.

An in vitro technique that amplifies a specific DNA segment through repeated cycles of denaturation, primer annealing, and extension by a thermostable DNA polymerase.

A short synthetic single-stranded oligonucleotide that anneals to a target sequence and provides a starting point for DNA polymerase to extend a new strand.

A heat-stable DNA polymerase from the thermophilic bacterium Thermus aquaticus, used in PCR because it survives the high temperatures that denature the template DNA.

A technique that separates charged molecules such as DNA fragments through a gel under an electric field, with smaller fragments migrating faster so sizes can be estimated against a ladder.

The production of many identical copies of a particular DNA fragment or gene, usually by inserting it into a vector and propagating it in a host organism.

A programmable genome-editing system in which a guide RNA directs the Cas9 nuclease to a target DNA sequence to create a double-strand break, enabling gene disruption or repair.

An organism whose genetic material has been deliberately altered using recombinant DNA or genome-editing techniques rather than through natural recombination or conventional breeding alone.

A genetically modified cotton variety carrying a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis that produces a protein toxic to certain insect larvae, notably bollworm pests.

A soil bacterium that forms crystalline insecticidal proteins during sporulation; its genes are the source of insect resistance in Bt crops and of bioinsecticide sprays.

The microbial conversion of sugars and other substrates into products such as ethanol, organic acids, or antibiotics, carried out in large stirred or airlift bioreactors under controlled conditions.

A vessel in which microorganisms, plant cells, or animal cells are cultured under controlled temperature, pH, aeration, and nutrient supply to produce a desired product at scale.

A beta-lactam antibiotic first obtained from the mould Penicillium notatum, produced industrially by submerged fermentation of improved Penicillium strains in stirred bioreactors.

An antibody population of identical specificity produced by a single cloned B-cell line, widely used in diagnostics, therapy, and affinity purification of proteins.

A fused cell formed from a B lymphocyte and a myeloma cell, combining antibody production with unlimited division so that a continuous supply of monoclonal antibody can be harvested.

An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay that detects an antigen or antibody in a sample by means of an enzyme-labelled binding partner and a colour-producing substrate reaction.

A molecule, often a protein or polysaccharide, that is recognised by an antibody or T-cell receptor and can trigger a specific adaptive immune response.

A preparation of weakened, killed, or subunit antigen, or of genetic instructions for an antigen, that trains the immune system to respond rapidly on later exposure to the pathogen.

An unorganised mass of undifferentiated plant cells formed from explants on nutrient medium containing auxins and cytokinins; it is the starting material for plant regeneration.

A small piece of plant tissue, such as a leaf, node, or shoot tip, taken from a donor plant and surface-sterilised for initiation of a tissue culture.

The rapid clonal multiplication of plants from shoot tips or axillary buds in sterile culture, producing many genetically uniform plantlets from a single elite parent.

The development of embryo-like structures from somatic cells in culture, which can regenerate complete plants and is exploited for synthetic seed and clonal propagation.

The capacity of a single differentiated plant cell to divide and regenerate into a complete fertile plant, the biological principle underlying plant tissue culture.

A pressure vessel that sterilises media, glassware, and waste with saturated steam at elevated temperature and pressure, typically 121 degrees Celsius for about 15 minutes.

A set of practices that prevent contamination of cultures and sterile materials, including flaming loops, working near a flame, and avoiding contact with non-sterile surfaces.

A bench enclosure that blows filter-sterilised air in a smooth unidirectional stream over the working area, protecting cultures from airborne contaminants during transfers.

A graded set of containment requirements, from BSL-1 to BSL-4, specifying laboratory design, equipment, and practices according to the risk group of the agents handled.

The principles and containment measures that prevent accidental exposure of workers, the public, and the environment to biological agents and genetically modified organisms.

Any biological agent or material, such as a pathogen, infected tissue, or recombinant organism, that poses a risk to human health or the environment and requires containment.

A time-limited legal right granted for an invention that is new, involves an inventive step, and has industrial application, giving the holder control over its commercial use.

Legal protections such as patents, copyright, trademarks, and plant variety rights that give creators control over the use of their inventions, writings, brands, or new varieties.

The unauthorised commercial exploitation of biological resources or traditional knowledge, often from developing countries, without fair benefit-sharing or informed consent.