HARCO Bank Clerk cheat sheet

Simple interest: SI = P×R×T/100; amount A = P(1 + RT/100). Compound interest: A = P(1 + R/100)^T, so CI = A − P.

Effective annual rate for compounding n times a year at nominal R: (1 + R/n)^n − 1; for half-yearly compounding use R/2 over 2T periods.

Percentage change net effect of two successive changes a% and b%: a + b + ab/100 (signs matter).

Profit and loss: profit% is always on cost price unless stated; SP = CP(1 + p/100); discount% is on marked price, so SP = MP(1 − d/100).

Ratio and proportion: if a:b = c:d then ad = bc; for three-way splits divide total by the sum of ratio parts, then multiply.

Time, speed, distance: distance = speed × time; for equal distances at speeds x and y, average speed = 2xy/(x+y).

Boats and streams: downstream speed = u + v, upstream = u − v; speed in still water u = (D + U)/2, stream v = (D − U)/2.

Time and work: if A does a job in a days and B in b days, together they take ab/(a+b) days; combined one-day work = 1/a + 1/b.

Averages: new average after adding value x to n items = (n·A + x)/(n+1); sum = average × count.

Syllogism: two particular premises never give a universal conclusion; two negatives never give an affirmative conclusion.

Syllogism validity check: draw the minimum (possibility) diagram; a conclusion is valid only if true in every possible diagram.

Blood relations: convert each statement to a symbol chain (father = ↑, mother = ↑ female, brother/sister = same generation) before answering.

Direction sense: fix north up; a right turn rotates heading clockwise 90°, a left turn anticlockwise 90°. Use Pythagoras for shortest distance.

Coding-decoding: check letter-position shifts (+1, −2), reversal, and positional sums (A=1 … Z=26) before assuming a pattern.

Seating arrangement: for linear rows facing north, left = west; when facing south, left = east - reverse left/right for south-facing persons.

Series completion: test differences, then ratios, then squares/cubes, then alternating two-series patterns.

Inequality/coded inequality: 'A ≥ B > C' implies A > C; only combine symbols pointing the same way.

Ranking: if a person is nth from left and mth from right in a row of N, then N = n + m − 1.

Subject-verb agreement: 'one of the + plural noun' takes a singular verb; 'each, every, either, neither' take singular verbs.

Collective nouns (team, committee, jury) take a singular verb when acting as a unit, plural verb when members act individually.

Articles: 'a' before consonant sounds, 'an' before vowel sounds (an hour, a university); 'the' for unique or already-mentioned nouns.

Prepositions of time: in + month/year, on + day/date, at + clock time; 'since' with a point in time, 'for' with a duration.

Tenses: after 'if' in a first conditional use present simple, not 'will' (If it rains, we will cancel).

Error spotting order: check verb agreement, tense consistency, article, preposition, then pronoun reference.

Cloze test strategy: read the full passage first, then use collocation and connector logic (however, therefore, moreover) to fix each blank.

Reading comprehension: answers must be supported by the passage; extreme words (always, never, only) usually signal wrong options.

Idioms to know: 'at the eleventh hour' = at the last moment; 'to burn the midnight oil' = to work late; 'a red-letter day' = an important day.

RBI was established on 1 April 1935 under the RBI Act, 1934, and nationalised on 1 January 1949; headquarters in Mumbai.

RBI functions: monetary authority, issuer of currency (except one-rupee coins/notes, issued by Government of India), banker to government and banks, manager of foreign exchange under FEMA, 1999.

Monetary policy tools: repo rate, reverse repo, marginal standing facility, bank rate, cash reserve ratio (CRR), statutory liquidity ratio (SLR).

CRR is held with RBI as cash; SLR is held with RBI or in approved government securities; both are percentages of net demand and time liabilities (NDTL).

Scheduled banks are those included in the Second Schedule of the RBI Act, 1934; they must satisfy a minimum paid-up capital and reserve requirement.

Deposit insurance: DICGC insures deposits up to ₹5 lakh per depositor per bank.

Priority sector lending target for domestic scheduled commercial banks is 40% of adjusted net bank credit; agriculture sub-target 18%.

NPA classification: sub-standard, doubtful, and loss assets; a loan becomes NPA when principal or interest is overdue more than 90 days.

Financial regulators: SEBI (securities), IRDAI (insurance), PFRDA (pensions), NABARD (agriculture and rural credit), EXIM Bank (export-import finance).

Computer generations: first (vacuum tubes), second (transistors), third (integrated circuits), fourth (microprocessors), fifth (AI).

Memory units: 8 bits = 1 byte; 1024 bytes = 1 KB; 1024 KB = 1 MB; 1024 MB = 1 GB; 1024 GB = 1 TB.

RAM is volatile primary memory; ROM is non-volatile; cache is fastest and sits between CPU and RAM.

NEFT settles in batches and is available 24×7; RTGS is for high-value transactions (minimum ₹2 lakh) and settles in real time.

UPI is run by NPCI and uses a virtual payment address (VPA) for instant bank-to-bank transfers via mobile.

IMPS is available 24×7 through NPCI and allows transfers up to ₹5 lakh per transaction.

SWIFT is the international messaging network for cross-border payments; IFSC is an 11-character code identifying a bank branch.

Phishing is a social-engineering attack using fake emails/sites to steal credentials; OTP must never be shared.

Firewall filters network traffic; antivirus detects malware; encryption converts plaintext to ciphertext for confidentiality.

Types of banks in India: scheduled commercial banks, regional rural banks, cooperative banks, small finance banks, and payment banks.

Payment banks can accept deposits up to ₹2 lakh per customer and cannot lend or issue credit cards; small finance banks can lend.

Basel III norms: minimum Common Equity Tier 1 ratio 5.5%, Tier 1 capital 7%, total capital adequacy 9% (RBI requires 9% for Indian banks).

Liquidity Coverage Ratio requires banks to hold high-quality liquid assets to cover 30 days of net cash outflows.

Money market instruments: treasury bills (up to 364 days), commercial paper (unsecured, corporate), certificates of deposit, call money.

Capital market instruments: equity shares, debentures, bonds; primary market is new issues, secondary market is trading on exchanges.

Banking Ombudsman is set up by RBI under the Integrated Ombudsman Scheme, 2021 for grievance redressal free of charge.

Kisan Credit Card provides short-term credit to farmers for crop production, allied activities, and consumption needs.

MUDRA loans: Shishu up to ₹50,000, Kishor ₹50,001–5 lakh, Tarun above ₹5 lakh to ₹10 lakh.

Data interpretation steps: read titles and units first, note the scale, then compute; never assume missing values.

Percentage of a part in a pie chart = (component/total) × 100; central angle = percentage × 3.6°.

Average from a bar graph = sum of bar values / number of bars; compare averages by total when counts are equal.

In a table, percentage change between two years = (new − old)/old × 100.

Ratio comparison in DI: cross-multiply rather than computing decimals to save time.

Clerical aptitude: alphabetical order questions - compare first letters, then second, and so on.

Number/letter series in clerical tests: check skipping patterns (every second or third letter) before assuming a shift.

Approximation technique: round each value to the nearest convenient number before multiplying or dividing in DI.

For a line graph, the steepest segment indicates the highest rate of change, not necessarily the highest value.

Percentage increase = (increase/original) × 100; percentage decrease uses the original (higher) value as the base.

In a stacked bar chart, each segment value must be read from the top of the previous segment, not from the axis.

Average of a data set with a missing value: use the total (average × count) and subtract known values.

Profit percentage in DI tables: (profit/cost price) × 100; if only selling price and profit% are given, CP = SP × 100/(100 + profit%).

Alphabetical order with mixed numbers and letters: numbers come before letters in standard ASCII; in clerical tests, follow the given rule.

Speed of computation: learn tables up to 20, squares up to 30, and cubes up to 15 to reduce DI time.

Data sufficiency: the question is answerable only if the data given is sufficient - do not use outside information.

Mixture and alligation: ratio of two components = (mean − cheaper) : (dearer − mean).

Partnership: profit share = capital × time; for equal time, profit ratio = capital ratio.

Permutation and combination: nPr = n!/(n−r)!; nCr = n!/[r!(n−r)!].

Probability of an event = favourable outcomes / total outcomes; probability of at least one = 1 − probability of none.

Mensuration: area of circle = πr², circumference = 2πr; volume of cylinder = πr²h; volume of sphere = (4/3)πr³.

Number system: divisibility by 3 if digit sum divisible by 3; by 4 if last two digits divisible by 4; by 11 if alternating digit sum difference is 0 or multiple of 11.

LCM × HCF = product of the two numbers.

Simple interest shortcut: SI for 2 years at R% = 2R% of principal; CI for 2 years = 2R + R²/100 percent of principal.

Puzzle with multiple attributes: fix the most constrained attribute first (e.g., the person with the fewest clues).

Ordering puzzles: use a table with rows as positions and columns as attributes.

Statement and assumption: an assumption is always implicit in the statement, not a conclusion drawn from it.

Statement and conclusion: a conclusion must follow from the statement alone; general knowledge should not be assumed.

Cause and effect: the cause must precede the effect logically; both must be related and not independent.

Analogy: identify the relation type (part-whole, worker-tool, cause-effect) and apply the same relation to the pair.

Odd one out: check category, spelling pattern, and number of letters before choosing.

Input-output reasoning: follow the step pattern (usually alphabetical or numeric ordering) and apply the same rule to the new input.

Synonyms to know: 'lucid' = clear; 'frugal' = thrifty; 'candid' = frank; 'obsolete' = outdated.

Antonyms to know: 'benevolent' ↔ 'malevolent'; 'transparent' ↔ 'opaque'; 'scarce' ↔ 'abundant'.

One-word substitutions: 'philanthropist' = one who loves mankind; 'misanthrope' = one who hates mankind; 'omnipotent' = all-powerful.

Active to passive: object becomes subject, verb becomes 'be + past participle', subject becomes 'by + agent'.

Direct to indirect speech: change pronouns, tense (present → past), and time words (today → that day).

Sentence connectors: 'although' contrasts, 'therefore' shows result, 'moreover' adds, 'nevertheless' concedes.

Spotting the error in a sentence: check the subject-verb agreement and the tense used with time markers (yesterday, since).

Idioms: 'to let the cat out of the bag' = to reveal a secret; 'to beat around the bush' = to avoid the main point.

RBI Governor is appointed by the Central Government; the RBI has 4 Deputy Governors.

Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) has 6 members and meets at least 4 times a year; the inflation target is 4% ± 2%.

Bank rate is the rate at which RBI lends long-term to banks; it is currently aligned to the MSF rate.

Repo rate is the rate at which RBI lends short-term to banks against government securities; reverse repo is the rate at which RBI absorbs liquidity.

Foreign exchange reserves include foreign currency assets, gold, SDRs, and the reserve tranche position with the IMF.

Financial inclusion: PMJDY (Jan Dhan Yojana), PMJJBY (life insurance), PMSBY (accident insurance), APY (pension).

Bank nationalisation: 14 banks in 1969 and 6 banks in 1980.

Money laundering prevention: PMLA, 2002; KYC norms mandated by RBI for all banks.

Financial Stability and Development Council (FSDC) is chaired by the Union Finance Minister.

OSI model has 7 layers; TCP/IP has 4 layers; IP address has 4 octets (IPv4) or 8 groups (IPv6).

HTTP is the protocol for web pages; HTTPS adds SSL/TLS encryption; FTP is for file transfer.

Banking apps use two-factor authentication (something you know + something you have).

Digital signature uses public-key cryptography: private key signs, public key verifies.

NPCI operates UPI, IMPS, RuPay, BHIM, AePS, and NACH.

Aadhaar Enabled Payment System (AePS) allows banking through Aadhaar authentication and a bank name.

POS (point of sale) terminal accepts card payments; mPOS is a mobile point-of-sale device.

Cloud computing service models: IaaS (infrastructure), PaaS (platform), SaaS (software).

Cybercrime reporting: report at cybercrime.gov.in or call 1930 for financial fraud.

RBI's prompt corrective action (PCA) framework triggers on capital, asset quality (NNPA ratio), and leverage ratios.

Priority sector categories include agriculture, MSME, education, housing, export credit, and weaker sections.

Lead Bank Scheme designates a lead bank in each district to coordinate credit.

Regional Rural Banks were set up under the RRB Act, 1976; shareholding is Centre 50%, State 15%, Sponsor bank 35%.

Small finance banks must hold 75% of their loans in priority sector lending.

Payment banks must invest at least 75% of demand deposits in government securities and can hold up to 25% in current/savings deposits with other banks.

Non-performing asset provisioning: sub-standard 15%, doubtful up to 100%, loss assets 100%.

SARFAESI Act, 2002 allows banks to enforce security without court intervention for secured loans above ₹1 lakh.

Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC), 2016 handles corporate insolvency resolution.

For a table with totals, verify that row totals and column totals match before answering.

Percentage of total in a pie chart: convert each angle to percentage by dividing by 3.6.

In a bar graph, if the question asks 'how many more', subtract the smaller bar from the larger bar.

Ratio of two data sets: reduce both to the same unit before forming the ratio.

Clerical aptitude: file-number ordering - compare numeric strings digit by digit from the left.

Approximation in DI: use 10% of a value as a base and build up (5% = half of 10%).

Data comparison questions: compute only the two values being compared, not the entire table.

For a line graph crossing years, the value at an intersection is the same for both series.

Simple interest difference between CI and SI for 2 years = P(R/100)².

For 3 years, CI − SI = P(R/100)²[(300 + R)/100].

Speed conversion: 1 km/h = 5/18 m/s; 1 m/s = 18/5 km/h.

Trains: time to cross a platform = (length of train + length of platform) / speed.

Pipes and cisterns: if a pipe fills in x hours and another empties in y hours, net rate = 1/x − 1/y.

Ages: if the present ratio is a:b and after n years it is c:d, set up (a·k + n)/(b·k + n) = c/d and solve for k.

Simple and compound interest relation: CI for 2 years = SI for 2 years + interest on first year's interest.

Percentage: x% of y = y% of x; to find what percent a is of b, compute (a/b) × 100.

Calendar: a normal year has 1 odd day; a leap year has 2 odd days.

Calendar: 100 years have 5 odd days; 200 years 3; 300 years 1; 400 years 0.

Clocks: the minute hand moves 6° per minute; the hour hand moves 0.5° per minute; relative speed = 5.5° per minute.

Clocks: hands coincide 11 times in 12 hours and are opposite 11 times in 12 hours.

Cube cutting: a cube cut into n³ smaller cubes has 8 corner cubes with 3 painted faces.

Cube cutting: cubes with exactly 2 painted faces = 12(n−2); with exactly 1 painted face = 6(n−2)².

Syllogism: 'All A are B' and 'All B are C' gives 'All A are C' (valid).

Number series: check differences, then second differences, then multiplication/division, then squares/cubes.

Homophones: 'their' (possessive), 'there' (place), 'they're' (they are); 'its' (possessive) vs 'it's' (it is).

Confusable pairs: 'affect' (verb) vs 'effect' (noun); 'principal' (main/head) vs 'principle' (rule).

Sentence improvement: choose the option that is grammatically correct and preserves the original meaning.

Para jumbles: find the opening sentence (usually introduces the topic), then link by pronouns and connectors.

Fill in the blanks: check the preposition that collocates with the verb (depend on, consist of, comply with).

Word usage: 'comprise' takes no 'of' (the team comprises five members).

Tenses: present perfect (has/have + past participle) is used for actions with present relevance; past simple for finished actions with a time marker.

Reading comprehension: main idea questions ask for the central theme, not a supporting detail.

Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 governs cheques, drafts, and promissory notes; a cheque is valid for 3 months from the date of issue.

Crossed cheque (two parallel lines) must be deposited into a bank account; an open cheque can be cashed at the counter.

Types of accounts: savings, current, fixed deposit, recurring deposit; current accounts are for businesses and earn no interest.

KYC documents: proof of identity (Aadhaar, PAN, passport) and proof of address (utility bill, bank statement).

Bank rate is decided by RBI; base rate/MCLR is the minimum lending rate set by each bank.

Cheque truncation system (CTS) allows clearing without physical movement of cheques.

NEFT, RTGS, IMPS are electronic funds transfer systems; NEFT has no minimum limit, RTGS minimum is ₹2 lakh.

Financial inclusion index is published by RBI; it measures access, usage, and quality of financial services.

Currency notes: ₹2000 note was introduced in 2016; RBI issues notes in denominations of ₹10, ₹20, ₹50, ₹100, ₹200, ₹500, and ₹2000.

Computer hardware: CPU (ALU + control unit), memory, input devices, output devices, storage.

Software types: system software (OS, utilities) and application software (word processors, banking apps).

Operating systems: Windows, Linux, macOS; Android and iOS are mobile OS.

MS Word shortcut: Ctrl + C copy, Ctrl + V paste, Ctrl + X cut, Ctrl + Z undo, Ctrl + S save.

MS Excel: SUM, AVERAGE, COUNT, IF, VLOOKUP are common functions; a formula begins with '='.

Internet: URL identifies a resource; DNS translates domain names to IP addresses.

Email: CC (carbon copy) is visible to all recipients; BCC (blind carbon copy) hides recipients.

Digital banking: mobile banking, internet banking, USSD (*99#), and UPI are channels for banking transactions.

Cyber safety: use strong passwords, enable two-factor authentication, and never share OTP or PIN.

RBI's Monetary Policy Report is published twice a year; the Financial Stability Report is published twice a year.

Banking Regulation Act, 1949 governs banking companies in India; RBI Act, 1934 governs RBI.

Cooperative banks are regulated by RBI and registered under state cooperative societies acts.

NABARD refinances agriculture and rural development; SIDBI supports MSMEs; EXIM Bank supports foreign trade.

Deposit insurance cover was raised to ₹5 lakh per depositor per bank in 2020.

Cash reserve ratio is maintained as a percentage of NDTL; SLR is maintained in approved securities.

Repo rate changes are announced by the MPC; the current (2024) repo rate is 6.5%.

Financial markets: primary market issues new securities; secondary market trades existing securities.

Mutual funds pool money from investors and are regulated by SEBI.

For a table of production over years, total production = sum of each year's value; average = total / number of years.

Percentage contribution of a year = (year value / total) × 100.

For a pie chart, the largest sector has the largest central angle.

If two pie charts represent the same total, compare sector sizes directly; if totals differ, convert to absolute values.

For a bar graph comparing two companies, the difference is the vertical gap between bars.

For a line graph, the highest point is the maximum value; the lowest point is the minimum value.

For a table with a percentage column, the base is usually the row total unless stated otherwise.

Approximation: round to the nearest 5 or 10 to simplify multiplication in DI questions.

Simple interest: if a sum doubles in T years at R%, then R = 100/T.

Compound interest: if a sum doubles in T years, it becomes 4 times in 2T years (for annual compounding).

Ratio: if a:b = 2:3 and b:c = 4:5, then a:b:c = 8:12:15.

Average: if the average of n numbers is A and one number is removed, the new average = (nA − x)/(n−1).

Profit and loss: if an article is sold at a loss of 10%, SP = 0.9 × CP.

Time and work: if A is twice as efficient as B, A takes half the time of B.

Speed: if a train covers a distance in 3 hours at 60 km/h, the distance is 180 km.

Mensuration: area of a rectangle = length × breadth; perimeter = 2(length + breadth).

Direction: if a person walks north, turns right, and walks, the final direction is east.

Blood relations: 'A is the son of B' and 'B is the daughter of C' means A is the grandson of C.

Coding: if 'CAT' is coded as 'DBU', each letter is shifted +1.

Series: 2, 6, 12, 20, 30 - differences are 4, 6, 8, 10 (consecutive even numbers).

Odd one out: check for prime numbers, squares, or multiples of a number.

Seating: in a circle facing the centre, left is clockwise; facing outward, left is anticlockwise.

Inequality: 'A > B ≥ C' implies A > C and B ≥ C.

Puzzle: if a person sits third to the left of another, count three positions to the left.

Common error: 'He is one of the best players who has played' - 'who' refers to 'players', so use 'have played'.

Common error: 'The number of students are' - use 'is' with 'the number of'.

Common error: 'A number of students is' - use 'are' with 'a number of'.

Preposition: 'married to', 'angry with' (a person), 'angry at' (a thing), 'differ from' (a thing), 'differ with' (a person).

Idiom: 'to take the bull by the horns' = to face a difficulty boldly.

Idiom: 'to be in hot water' = to be in trouble.

One-word substitution: 'ephemeral' = lasting for a very short time; 'ubiquitous' = present everywhere.

Reading comprehension: inference questions require a conclusion drawn from the passage, not stated directly.

RBI's functions include issuing currency, banker to government, lender of last resort, and custodian of foreign exchange reserves.

Banking Ombudsman covers complaints about deposit accounts, loans, credit cards, and remittances.

Financial inclusion schemes: PMJDY provides a zero-balance savings account with a RuPay card.

Atal Pension Yojana is for the unorganised sector, with a guaranteed pension of ₹1,000–₹5,000 per month after 60.

Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana offers life cover of ₹2 lakh at a premium of ₹436 per year.

Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana offers accidental death/disability cover of ₹2 lakh at ₹20 per year.

Standing Deposit Facility (SDF) was introduced in 2022 to absorb liquidity without government securities collateral.

Digital Rupee (CBDC) is issued by RBI as a central bank digital currency.

Banking codes: IFSC (11 characters), MICR (9 digits), SWIFT (8 or 11 characters).

Computer memory hierarchy: registers > cache > RAM > secondary storage (fastest to slowest).

Binary: 1 byte = 8 bits; a nibble is 4 bits.

MS Excel: a cell reference like A1 means column A, row 1; absolute reference uses $.

MS PowerPoint: slide sorter view arranges slides; F5 starts the slideshow.

Internet: an IP address identifies a device; a URL identifies a resource; HTTP is stateless.

Digital banking: UPI ID format is name@bank; UPI transactions are limited to ₹1 lakh per day (higher for specific categories).

NPCI's Bharat Bill Payment System (BBPS) allows payment of utility bills.

Cyber fraud: report immediately to the bank and at cybercrime.gov.in; the RBI's zero-liability policy applies if reported within 3 working days.

Password security: use a mix of upper/lower case, numbers, and symbols; avoid using personal details.

Basel III introduced leverage ratio and liquidity coverage ratio in addition to capital adequacy.

Capital adequacy ratio = (Tier 1 + Tier 2 capital) / risk-weighted assets × 100.

Tier 1 capital includes equity and disclosed reserves; Tier 2 includes subordinated debt and general provisions.

Net NPA ratio = net NPAs / net advances; gross NPA ratio = gross NPAs / gross advances.

Provisioning coverage ratio (PCR) = provisions / gross NPAs.

Banking Ombudsman Scheme, 2021 integrates the earlier three ombudsman schemes into one.

Financial Action Task Force (FATF) sets global standards for anti-money laundering.

Know Your Customer (KYC) norms require banks to verify identity and address before opening an account.

Small finance banks must have a minimum paid-up capital of ₹200 crore (as per RBI 2019 guidelines).

For a table showing income and expenditure, profit = income − expenditure; profit% = (profit/expenditure) × 100.

For a table showing imports and exports, trade balance = exports − imports; a positive value is a surplus.

For a pie chart, the total is 100% or 360°; each sector's share is proportional to its angle.

For a bar graph, the average is the sum of bar heights divided by the number of bars.

Data sufficiency: if a question asks for a ratio and the data gives only one component, the data is insufficient.

Approximation: for 47 × 23, round to 50 × 20 = 1000 for a quick estimate.

Clerical aptitude: in alphabetical ordering, ignore spaces and punctuation unless the rule says otherwise.

For a line graph with two lines, the point where they cross indicates equal values.

Simple interest: SI = P × R × T / 100; if SI = P, then R × T = 100.

Compound interest: for half-yearly compounding, rate = R/2 and time = 2T.

Ratio: if a:b = 3:4 and b:c = 5:6, then a:b:c = 15:20:24.

Percentage: to increase a number by 20%, multiply by 1.2; to decrease by 20%, multiply by 0.8.

Profit and loss: if CP = ₹100 and SP = ₹120, profit% = 20%.

Time and work: if A and B together do a job in 6 days, their combined rate is 1/6 per day.

Speed: if a car travels 240 km in 4 hours, its speed is 60 km/h.

Mensuration: volume of a cube = side³; surface area = 6 × side².

Syllogism: 'Some A are B' and 'All B are C' gives 'Some A are C'.

Blood relations: 'A is the brother of B' and 'B is the sister of C' means A and C are siblings.

Coding: if 'PEN' is coded as 'QFO', each letter is shifted +1.

Series: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 - these are squares of consecutive numbers.

Odd one out: 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 - 9 is not prime.

Seating: in a row facing north, the leftmost person is at position 1 from the left.

Inequality: 'A ≤ B < C' implies A < C.

Direction: if a person walks 3 km east, 4 km north, the shortest distance from the start is 5 km (3-4-5 triangle).

Articles: 'a' is used before a singular countable noun starting with a consonant sound.

Tenses: present continuous (is/am/are + verb-ing) is used for actions happening now.

Prepositions: 'in' for a period, 'on' for a day, 'at' for a time.

Sentence correction: check for subject-verb agreement, tense, article, and preposition errors.

Idioms: 'to burn the candle at both ends' = to work too hard.

One-word substitution: 'altruist' = a person who thinks of others first.

Reading comprehension: the tone of the passage can be neutral, critical, or appreciative.

Para jumbles: link sentences by pronouns (he, she, it, they) and connectors (however, therefore).