KSEAB II PUC Political Science cheat sheet

Political science is the systematic study of the state, government, power, and political behaviour; it is a social science, not a natural science, so it uses observation, comparison, and interpretation rather than controlled experiment.

The term derives from the Greek polis (city-state); the discipline is conventionally traced to Aristotle's Politics, which treated the polis as the highest association and used comparative study of 158 constitutions.

Traditional or normative approach: focuses on the state, sovereignty, law, and ideals such as justice and the good life; values are treated as central to inquiry.

Modern or behavioural approach (post-1945, associated with the Chicago School): rejects value-laden analysis, seeks verifiable generalisations, and studies actual behaviour, voting, and power relations.

Post-behavioural approach (David Easton, 1969): accepts behavioural methods but insists on relevance to contemporary social problems and on action.

Scope includes political theory, comparative government, public administration, international relations, and public policy; the state remains central but the discipline also studies parties, groups, and individuals.

Key concepts: state, sovereignty, power, authority, legitimacy, liberty, equality, justice, and citizenship.

Significance: develops informed citizenship, supplies analytical tools for policy and administration, and provides the conceptual base for law, journalism, and civil service careers.

Four essential elements per the Montevideo Convention (1933): a permanent population, a defined territory, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states.

Population and territory are the physical elements; government is the political element; sovereignty is the legal element that distinguishes the state from other associations.

Divine origin theory: state authority is derived from God and rulers are accountable to God; it dominated ancient and medieval political thought.

Force theory: the state arose from conquest and coercion of the weak by the strong; war and domination are the formative forces.

Social contract theory (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau): the state arises from an agreement among people to escape the state of nature; Hobbes favours absolute sovereignty, Locke limited government, Rousseau popular sovereignty.

Evolutionary or historical theory: the state emerged gradually from family, clan, tribe, and kinship associations, shaped by factors such as kinship, religion, property, war, and political consciousness.

Changing nature: globalisation, supranational bodies, multinational corporations, and non-state armed groups have eroded the state's monopoly, producing debates on the 'welfare state', 'market state', and 'failed state'.

The state is distinguished from 'nation' (a cultural-psychological community) and 'government' (the agency that exercises state authority); a nation-state combines both.

Sovereignty is the supreme and final authority of the state within its territory; it has two aspects: internal sovereignty (supreme over all persons and associations within) and external sovereignty (independence from other states).

Characteristics of sovereignty: absoluteness, permanence, exclusiveness, universality, inalienability, and indivisibility.

Legal sovereignty belongs to the body that makes law; political sovereignty belongs to the body that actually commands obedience, often the electorate.

Theories: monistic (sovereignty is single, absolute, and indivisible, held by the state) versus pluralistic (sovereignty is shared with associations; the state is primus inter pares).

Power is the capacity to influence the behaviour of others, by persuasion, inducement, or coercion; it is broader than authority.

Authority is legitimate power, i.e., the right to command accepted by those who obey; Max Weber identified traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational types.

Legitimacy is the belief by the governed that a ruler's power is rightfully held; it differs from legality (conformity to law), so a legal government can lack legitimacy.

Sovereignty in a globalised world is limited by international law, human rights regimes, trade agreements, and institutions such as the UN and WTO.

A constitution is the fundamental law that establishes the organs of government, distributes powers, and limits authority; written constitutions are codified in a single document, unwritten ones rest on conventions and statutes.

Rigid constitutions require a special amending procedure (e.g., the US Constitution); flexible ones can be amended by ordinary law (e.g., the UK).

Constitutionalism is the doctrine that government power must be limited by law and accountable to the people; it is distinct from merely having a constitution.

Safeguards of constitutionalism include separation of powers, rule of law, judicial review, fundamental rights, and free elections.

Presidential government: the head of state is head of government, elected for a fixed term, not responsible to the legislature; separation of personnel between executive and legislature.

Parliamentary government: the executive is drawn from and responsible to the legislature; the head of state is ceremonial and the real power lies with the prime minister and cabinet.

Unitary systems concentrate power in a single central government (e.g., the UK, Japan); federal systems divide power between national and regional governments (e.g., India, USA, Australia).

Other classifications: monarchy versus republic; liberal democratic versus authoritarian; and direct versus representative democracy.

Three organs: legislature (makes law), executive (executes law and policy), judiciary (interprets law and adjudicates disputes).

Montesquieu in The Spirit of Laws (1748) formulated the classic separation of powers to prevent tyranny, drawing on the British system.

Separation of powers has three meanings: separation of personnel, separation of functions, and checks and balances.

Checks in the US system: presidential veto of legislation, Senate confirmation of appointments, and judicial review of statutes.

In India the separation is functional, not rigid; the executive is part of the legislature, and the judiciary exercises judicial review under Articles 13, 32, and 226.

Legislative functions: lawmaking, control of the executive (question hour, no-confidence motion, budget), representation, and amendment of the constitution.

Executive functions: policy formulation, administration, foreign relations, and emergency management; the civil service provides continuity.

Judicial functions: adjudication, interpretation of the constitution, protection of fundamental rights, and advisory jurisdiction (Article 143 in India).

Democracy derives from the Greek demos (people) and kratos (rule); Abraham Lincoln's formulation is government of, by, and for the people.

Direct democracy (referendum, initiative, recall) is feasible in small units; representative democracy operates through elected bodies.

Essential conditions for democracy: universal adult suffrage, free and fair elections, rule of law, independent judiciary, protection of minorities, and freedom of speech and association.

Electoral systems: first-past-the-post (single-member plurality), proportional representation (party-list or single transferable vote), and mixed systems.

FPTP tends to produce single-party majorities and a two-party system; PR produces multi-party coalitions with closer vote-seat correspondence.

Functions of political parties: interest aggregation, recruitment of leaders, formulation of programmes, mobilisation of voters, and linking people to government.

Party systems: one-party, two-party, and multi-party; India's is a multi-party system with national and state parties recognized by the Election Commission.

In India the Election Commission (Article 324) conducts elections; the Model Code of Conduct applies from the announcement of elections until results are declared.

Citizenship is full membership of a political community carrying rights, duties, and participation; it is narrower than nationality, which is a cultural-legal bond.

Acquisition of citizenship: by birth (jus soli), by descent (jus sanguinis), by naturalisation, by marriage, and by incorporation of territory.

T. H. Marshall identified civil, political, and social dimensions of citizenship, each with its corresponding rights.

Civil rights protect life, liberty, property, and equality before the law; political rights include voting, contesting, and holding office; social rights include education, health, and welfare.

Duties are obligations correlative to rights: paying taxes, obeying the law, jury or public service, defending the country, and protecting the environment.

Justice as a concept: distributive justice concerns the fair allocation of benefits and burdens; retributive justice concerns punishment; corrective justice concerns restoring losses.

Rawls's theory of justice: principles chosen behind a 'veil of ignorance' guarantee equal basic liberties and permit inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged (difference principle).

In India, Articles 5-11 govern citizenship; Articles 12-35 cover fundamental rights; Article 51A lists fundamental duties; the Preamble pledges justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity.

Liberty is the absence of arbitrary restraint and the presence of conditions for self-development; negative liberty is freedom from interference, positive liberty is freedom to act and fulfil potential.

Mill's harm principle: interference with liberty is justified only to prevent harm to others; liberty is not licence.

Equality means equal treatment and equal opportunity, not identical outcomes; formal equality is before the law, substantive equality addresses structural disadvantage.

Liberty and equality are complementary, not opposed: unrestricted liberty produces inequality, and equality without liberty produces tyranny.

Fraternity is a sense of brotherhood and solidarity among citizens; it underpins social cohesion and the dignity of the individual.

Nationalism is loyalty to and pride in the nation; it can be civic and inclusive or ethnic and exclusionary, and aggressive nationalism threatens peace.

Internationalism holds that states and peoples are interdependent and should cooperate through international law and institutions; it does not necessarily abolish national identity.

The Preamble of the Indian Constitution combines liberty, equality, and fraternity, and Article 51 directs the state to promote international peace and security.

The Constituent Assembly was formed under the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946); it held its first sitting on 9 December 1946 and adopted the Constitution on 26 November 1949, which came into force on 26 January 1950.

Dr B. R. Ambedkar chaired the Drafting Committee; Dr Rajendra Prasad was President of the Assembly; B. N. Rau was the constitutional adviser.

The Constitution drew on the Government of India Act 1935 (federal structure, emergency provisions), the US (fundamental rights, judicial review), Ireland (Directive Principles), and the UK (parliamentary system).

Key features: length and detail, written and rigid-with-flexible-elements, parliamentary sovereignty with judicial review, federalism with a strong centre, universal adult franchise, and single citizenship.

Fundamental rights (Articles 12-35) are justiciable; they include equality (14-18), freedom (19-22), against exploitation (23-24), religion (25-28), cultural and educational rights (29-30), and constitutional remedies (32, called the 'heart and soul' by Ambedkar).

The Right to Education was inserted by the 86th Amendment (2002) as Article 21A; the Right to Property was removed as a fundamental right by the 44th Amendment (1978) and made a legal right under Article 300A.

Directive Principles (Articles 36-51) are non-justiciable guidelines for policy, including the Uniform Civil Code (44), village panchayats (40), and the organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry (48).

Fundamental duties (Article 51A) were added by the 42nd Amendment (1976) on the recommendation of the Swaran Singh Committee; they are non-justiciable.

The President is the head of state, elected indirectly by an electoral college of elected MPs and MLAs; the office is largely ceremonial but the President exercises discretion in hung parliaments and appointments.

The Prime Minister heads the Council of Ministers, which is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha (Article 75); the Council advises the President, who acts on that advice (Article 74).

The Union Legislature is Parliament: President, Rajya Sabha (up to 250 members) and Lok Sabha (up to 552 members); money bills can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha.

The Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice and other judges (currently 34 including the CJI); judges hold office until 65 and are removed only by impeachment for proved misbehaviour.

Judicial review derives from Articles 13, 32, and 226; the basic structure doctrine (Kesavananda Bharati, 1973) protects features such as judicial review, federalism, and free elections.

Federal features: two levels of government, written constitution, division of powers (Union, State, Concurrent lists in the Seventh Schedule), bicameralism, and an independent judiciary.

Unitary features: single constitution and citizenship, strong centre, appointment of Governors, emergency provisions, and the Union's power to legislate on state subjects under Article 249 or during an emergency.

The Seventh Schedule lists 97 subjects in the Union List, 66 in the State List, and 47 in the Concurrent List; residuary powers rest with the Union (Article 248).

Karnataka was formed on 1 November 1956 under the States Reorganisation Act, uniting Kannada-speaking areas then in Bombay, Madras, Hyderabad, and Coorg; it was renamed Karnataka in 1973.

The Governor is the constitutional head of the state, appointed by the President; the Chief Minister heads the Council of Ministers and enjoys the confidence of the Legislative Assembly.

The Karnataka Legislature is bicameral: the Legislative Assembly (Vidhana Sabha) and the Legislative Council (Vidhana Parishad), the latter a permanent house with one-third members retiring every two years.

The High Court of Karnataka, established in 1884 as the Mysore High Court, is the highest court in the state; it has original and appellate jurisdiction and issues writs under Article 226.

Panchayat Raj in Karnataka is governed by the Karnataka Panchayat Raj Act 1993, with a three-tier structure of Gram Panchayat, Taluk Panchayat, and Zilla Panchayat.

Karnataka was the first state to enact a law providing for the participation of women in local bodies through reservation in panchayats.

State subjects under the State List include police, public health, agriculture, local government, and education, administered through departments headed by ministers and secretaries.

The state's revenue administration is organised into divisions, districts, taluks, and hoblis, headed respectively by Divisional Commissioners, Deputy Commissioners, Tahsildars, and Shirosthedars.

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act (1992) gave constitutional status to rural local government; the 74th Act (1992) did the same for urban local bodies; both came into force on 1 June 1993.

Three-tier panchayat structure: Gram Panchayat at the village level, Panchayat Samiti (Mandal/Taluk) at the intermediate level, and Zilla Parishad at the district level.

The Eleventh Schedule (73rd Amendment) lists 29 subjects for panchayats; the Twelfth Schedule (74th Amendment) lists 18 subjects for municipalities.

Mandatory provisions: three-tier structure for states with population above 20 lakh, direct elections to all seats, five-year term, and reservation for SCs, STs, and women (one-third).

The State Election Commission conducts panchayat and municipal elections; the State Finance Commission reviews the financial position of local bodies every five years.

The District Planning Committee consolidates plans prepared by panchayats and municipalities (Article 243ZD); the Metropolitan Planning Committee serves metropolitan areas (Article 243ZE).

Urban local bodies include Municipal Corporations (larger cities), Municipal Councils, and Nagar Panchayats (transitional areas); the 74th Amendment also provides for ward committees.

Local bodies are instruments of democratic decentralisation; they face constraints of limited taxation powers, dependence on grants, and inadequate administrative capacity.

India's foreign policy principles, shaped by Nehru, include non-alignment, Panchsheel (five principles of peaceful coexistence, 1954), anti-colonialism, and support for the UN.

Non-alignment means not joining military blocs, not neutrality; India was a founder of the Non-Aligned Movement at Belgrade in 1961, with Nehru, Nasser, and Tito as key leaders.

Instruments of foreign policy: diplomacy, treaties and alliances, economic aid and sanctions, propaganda, and military force.

The United Nations was founded on 24 October 1945; its principal organs are the General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice, and Secretariat.

The Security Council has 15 members: five permanent (China, France, Russia, UK, USA) with veto power and ten non-permanent members elected for two-year terms.

India is a founding member of the UN and has been elected non-permanent member of the Security Council eight times; it is a major troop contributor to UN peacekeeping.

Global issues include climate change (Paris Agreement 2015, UNFCCC), terrorism, nuclear proliferation (NPT, CTBT), human rights, refugees, and sustainable development (SDGs, 2015).

India's key groupings include BRICS, SAARC, BIMSTEC, the G20 (presidency 2023), the Quad, and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.

Karnataka was formed on 1 November 1956 under the States Reorganisation Act, uniting Kannada-speaking areas then in Bombay, Madras, Hyderabad, and Coorg; it was renamed Karnataka in 1973.

The Governor is the constitutional head of the state, appointed by the President; the Chief Minister heads the Council of Ministers and enjoys the confidence of the Legislative Assembly.

The Karnataka Legislature is bicameral: the Legislative Assembly (Vidhana Sabha) and the Legislative Council (Vidhana Parishad), the latter a permanent house with one-third members retiring every two years.

The High Court of Karnataka, established in 1884 as the Mysore High Court, is the highest court in the state; it has original and appellate jurisdiction and issues writs under Article 226.

Panchayat Raj in Karnataka is governed by the Karnataka Panchayat Raj Act 1993, with a three-tier structure of Gram Panchayat, Taluk Panchayat, and Zilla Panchayat.

Karnataka was the first state to enact a law providing for the participation of women in local bodies through reservation in panchayats.

State subjects under the State List include police, public health, agriculture, local government, and education, administered through departments headed by ministers and secretaries.

The state's revenue administration is organised into divisions, districts, taluks, and hoblis, headed respectively by Divisional Commissioners, Deputy Commissioners, Tahsildars, and Shirosthedars.