KSEAB II PUC Political Science key terms

The systematic study of government, political institutions, power, and the behaviour of individuals and groups in public decision-making. It combines normative inquiry with empirical analysis of how societies govern themselves.

An approach that studies politics through observable behaviour and testable hypotheses, borrowing methods from the natural and social sciences. It emphasises empirical verification over value judgement, seeking generalisable explanations of political action.

A political community occupying a defined territory, with a permanent population, an organised government, and the capacity to exercise supreme authority internally and independence externally. It is the central institution through which public power is organised.

The fixed geographical area, including land, water, and airspace, over which a state exercises jurisdiction. Without a defined territory a state cannot function as a settled political community.

An explanation of the state's origin holding that people voluntarily agreed to surrender some natural freedom to a common authority in exchange for security and order. Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau developed influential but differing versions.

The supreme and final authority within a political community, subject to no higher earthly power. Internally it means the state's power to make binding rules; externally it means independence from foreign control.

Competing views of sovereign power. Monism holds that sovereignty is indivisible and rests in one determinate body; pluralism argues that authority is shared among associations and institutions, so no single centre monopolises all power.

The capacity to influence the behaviour of others, whether by coercion, persuasion, or the control of resources and information. In politics it is the ability to shape decisions and outcomes even against resistance.

The recognised right to give commands and expect obedience, resting on acceptance by those subject to it rather than on force alone. It converts raw power into rule that people regard as binding.

The belief among those governed that a regime's authority is morally justified and deserves compliance. Legitimacy may rest on tradition, legal-rational rules, or performance, and its erosion weakens even powerful governments.

The fundamental law of a state, setting out the structure of government, the distribution of powers, and the rights of citizens. It may be written or unwritten, rigid or flexible, and serves as the supreme standard against which other laws are judged.

The principle that government must be limited by law and accountable under a constitution, rather than acting on the arbitrary will of rulers. It stresses checks, due process, and rights as restraints on public power.

The doctrine that everyone, including officials, is subject to the same known laws applied through impartial courts. It opposes arbitrary detention and privileges and requires that law be prospective, clear, and equally enforced.

A form of government in which the executive is drawn from and remains responsible to the legislature, holding office only while it retains majority confidence. The head of government is normally the leader of the majority party.

A system in which the head of state and government is elected separately from the legislature, serves a fixed term, and cannot ordinarily be removed by a legislative vote. Executive and legislative powers are strictly separated.

The division of governmental functions among legislature, executive, and judiciary, each exercising distinct powers and able to check the others. It aims to prevent concentration of authority and protect liberty.

Arrangements by which each organ of government can restrain the others, such as a legislative veto, executive appointment powers, or judicial review. The aim is to keep any single branch from dominating.

The power of courts to examine laws and executive actions and declare them invalid if they violate the constitution. It is a key instrument of constitutional supremacy and of checks on other branches.

A system of government in which political authority derives from the consent of the people, exercised directly or through elected representatives. It requires free competition for power, accountability, and protection of basic rights.

The right of all adult citizens to vote regardless of wealth, sex, caste, religion, or education. It is the foundation of political equality and mass participation in representative democracy.

An electoral method that allocates seats in proportion to the share of votes each party receives, often through party lists or multi-member constituencies. It tends to reflect opinion more accurately but can produce fragmented legislatures.

A single-member constituency system in which the candidate with the largest number of votes wins, even without a majority. It usually produces stable single-party majorities but under-represents smaller parties.

An organised group that seeks to win public office and shape policy by contesting elections under a common label and programme. Parties aggregate interests, recruit leaders, and link government to citizens.

The practice of two or more parties combining to form a government or contest power together when no single party commands a majority. It requires negotiated power-sharing and a common minimum programme.

An independent constitutional body responsible for conducting elections, preparing electoral rolls, and enforcing a code of conduct. Its autonomy is essential to free and fair elections in a democracy.

The legal membership of a person in a state, carrying rights, duties, and entitlements such as voting and protection. It may be acquired by birth, descent, registration, or naturalisation, and can be single or dual.

A set of justiciable freedoms guaranteed by the Indian Constitution to protect persons against arbitrary state action. They include equality, freedom, protection against exploitation, religion, culture, and constitutional remedies.

Eleven obligations listed in Article 51A, added by the 42nd Amendment, asking citizens to respect the Constitution, national symbols, and public property, and to promote harmony and education. They are non-justiciable but guide civic behaviour.

Non-enforceable guidelines in Part IV of the Indian Constitution directing the state to promote welfare, social justice, and a just order. Courts use them to interpret fundamental rights and to assess the reasonableness of state policy.

A state that accepts responsibility for the basic well-being of its people through public provision of education, health, social security, and poverty relief. It intervenes actively in the economy to reduce inequality.

A system in which power is constitutionally divided between a national government and constituent units, each supreme in its own sphere. It typically involves a written constitution, bicameralism, and an independent arbiter.

The principle that the constitution is the highest law, so that legislative and executive acts inconsistent with it are void. It distinguishes federal systems from those in which a legislature is sovereign.

The convention that the council of ministers stands or falls together and is jointly answerable to the legislature for all government policy. It enforces cabinet solidarity and underpins parliamentary government.

The organ of government that makes, amends, and repeals laws, authorises taxation and expenditure, and holds the executive accountable. India's Parliament consists of the President and two Houses.

The administration of local affairs by bodies elected by the local people, such as gram panchayats and municipal councils. It brings decision-making closer to citizens and is protected by the 73rd and 74th Amendments.

The freedom of individuals to think, speak, and act without arbitrary restraint, subject to lawful limits that protect others' freedom. Positive liberty emphasises capacity and self-realisation; negative liberty emphasises absence of interference.

The principle that all persons are of equal moral worth and should enjoy equal legal protection and fair opportunity. It permits reasonable classification but forbids arbitrary discrimination.

The spirit of brotherhood and solidarity that binds members of a political community, assuring the dignity of every individual. It is invoked in the Preamble as a constitutional value alongside liberty and equality.

A sense of collective identity and loyalty centred on a nation, often seeking statehood or the advancement of national interests. Civic nationalism stresses shared citizenship; ethnic nationalism stresses descent and culture.

The view that states and peoples should cooperate across borders for common goals such as peace, trade, and human welfare. It supports international law and organisations as restraints on narrow national interest.

A foreign policy approach of staying outside rival military blocs while retaining independent judgement on international issues. India championed it during the Cold War as a strategy of strategic autonomy and Third World solidarity.

The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence agreed between India and China in 1954, covering sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, equality, and peaceful settlement of disputes. They became a cornerstone of India's foreign policy rhetoric.

A global organisation founded in 1945 to maintain peace and security, promote human rights, and foster development through cooperation among member states. Its principal organs include the General Assembly and Security Council.

The right of each permanent member of the UN Security Council to block a substantive resolution by a single negative vote. It reflects the unequal power structure built into the Council and is a frequent target of reform demands.