Maharashtra HSC General Civil Engineering (Bifocal) key terms

The fixed ratio between a distance measured on a drawing and the real distance it represents on site, such as 1:100 meaning one unit on paper equals one hundred units in reality.

A scale expressed as a fraction or ratio without units, for example 1:50, showing how many real-world units correspond to one drawn unit regardless of the measurement system used.

An orthographic projection of a building or object seen from directly above, showing the layout of walls, openings, and fittings at a stated scale.

An orthographic view of a building face projected onto a vertical plane, showing heights, levels, and external finishes as seen from one side.

A view obtained by imagining an object cut by a plane and drawing what remains, revealing internal construction such as wall thicknesses, foundations, and floor build-ups.

A pattern of parallel or crossed lines used inside a cut surface on a drawing to indicate the material, such as brick, concrete, or earth, and to distinguish it from surrounding areas.

The thickness assigned to a drawn line, used to rank importance: thick lines for cut outlines, medium lines for visible edges, and thin lines for dimensioning and hidden work.

A thin line terminated by arrowheads that carries a numerical value showing the distance between two points on a drawing, placed outside the object wherever possible.

A thin projection line drawn from the feature being measured to the dimension line, usually with a small gap from the object, so the extent of the measurement is clear.

A chain line of long and short dashes marking axes of symmetry, centres of circles, or paths of motion on a drawing, helping locate features symmetrically.

A three-dimensional pictorial drawing in which the three principal axes are spaced 120 degrees apart and true lengths are measured along them, giving a single view of an object.

A method of representing an object by projecting its views onto two or more planes at right angles, using parallel rays, so that each view shows true shape in one direction.

A workable mixture of fine aggregate, a binding material such as cement or lime, and water, used to join masonry units and fill joints, hardening after application.

The systematic arrangement of bricks in a wall so that vertical joints are staggered between courses, preventing continuous cracks and distributing load evenly.

The process of keeping freshly placed concrete or masonry moist and at a suitable temperature for a set period so that cement hydrates fully and gains strength.

The mass of water divided by the mass of cement in a concrete mix; a lower ratio generally raises strength and durability but reduces workability.

The ease with which fresh concrete can be mixed, transported, placed, and compacted without segregation, commonly assessed by the slump test.

A field test in which fresh concrete is placed in a standard cone, the cone is lifted, and the drop in height of the concrete is measured to indicate workability.

A composite of cement, fine and coarse aggregates, and water that hardens into a stone-like mass, strong in compression but weak in tension without reinforcement.

Concrete containing steel bars placed where tensile or shear stresses occur, so that concrete resists compression and steel resists tension, overcoming plain concrete's weakness.

The least thickness of concrete measured from the outer surface to the nearest surface of reinforcement, specified to protect steel from corrosion and fire.

The maximum pressure the ground can safely carry without excessive settlement or shear failure, used to size footings and decide the type of foundation.

The surveying operation of determining the relative heights of points on the ground, usually by reading a graduated staff through a levelling instrument set on a tripod.

A fixed, permanently marked point of known reduced level, used as the reference from which other levels in a survey are calculated.

The height of a survey point expressed relative to a chosen datum, obtained by adding or subtracting staff readings from a known benchmark level.

A line on a map joining points of equal elevation, so that its spacing and shape reveal ground slope, valleys, and ridges for planning roads and drainage.

The horizontal angle measured from a fixed reference direction, such as magnetic north, to a survey line, expressed in degrees and used to fix direction.

A survey in which a series of connected lines is measured for length and direction, forming a framework of control points whose coordinates can then be computed.

The internal intensity of force developed within a material, calculated as force divided by the cross-sectional area over which it acts, expressed in newtons per square millimetre.

The deformation of a material per unit of its original length, a dimensionless quantity obtained by dividing change in length by original length.

The ratio of direct stress to the corresponding strain within the elastic range, indicating how stiff a material is; steel has a much higher value than concrete.

The algebraic sum of the moments of all forces acting on one side of a section about that section, causing a beam to bend and producing tension on one face.

The algebraic sum of all vertical forces acting on one side of a section of a beam, tending to slide one part of the member past the adjacent part.

The ratio of the ultimate strength of a material or member to the working load or stress it is designed to carry, providing margin against uncertainty and failure.

A calculated forecast of the probable cost of a work, prepared from drawings, specifications, and current rates before construction begins, to sanction funds.

The working out of a unit rate for an item of work from the cost of materials, labour, plant, and contractor's overheads and profit, used to price a bill of quantities.

A summary sheet listing each item of work with its quantity, unit rate, and amount, totalled to give the overall estimated cost of a project.

A priced schedule listing measured quantities of each item of work with descriptions, forming the contract basis for tendering and payment.

The settling of suspended particles in water under gravity in a tank, a preliminary treatment stage that removes heavier solids before filtration and disinfection.

The passing of water through beds of sand and gravel to trap fine suspended matter and remove a large share of bacteria, following sedimentation in a treatment plant.

The addition of chlorine or a chlorine compound to water to kill disease-causing organisms and to leave a residual that protects water in the distribution system.

The minimum flow velocity in a sewer that keeps solid matter moving and prevents deposition, commonly about 0.6 to 0.9 metres per second at design flow.

The transverse slope given to a road surface from the centre towards the edges so that rainwater drains off quickly and the pavement stays dry.

The inward transverse slope provided on a road curve to counter the centrifugal force on moving vehicles, allowing them to negotiate the bend safely at design speed.

A small drainage structure built under a road or embankment to carry stream water or storm flow across the alignment without interrupting the roadway.

In a project network, the longest chain of dependent activities, which fixes the shortest possible project duration; any delay on it delays completion.

The amount of time an activity can be delayed without delaying the project finish, equal to zero for activities lying on the critical path.

A scheduling chart with activities listed vertically and time along the horizontal axis, each activity shown as a bar, useful for simple progress comparison.

Wearable safety gear such as helmets, safety shoes, gloves, and harnesses provided on site to protect workers from injury hazards.

A systematic inspection of a site or organisation against safety standards and legal duties, identifying hazards and recording corrective actions with responsibilities and deadlines.

A named, independently controllable level in a CAD drawing on which related objects are grouped, allowing visibility, colour, and plotting to be managed separately.

A named group of drawing objects saved as a single unit that can be inserted repeatedly at different positions and scales, such as a door or column symbol.