Maharashtra HSC Philosophy key terms

The systematic, rational inquiry into fundamental questions about reality, knowledge, values, and meaning, pursued through argument and reflection rather than mere opinion or tradition.

A method of inquiry that proceeds by question and answer, examining opposing positions and their tensions in order to clarify or resolve a problem.

A conversational technique associated with Socrates in which persistent questioning exposes hidden assumptions and inconsistencies in a person's beliefs, aiming at clearer definitions.

The branch of philosophy that investigates the most general features of reality, including what exists, what it is to be something, and how things relate causally.

The part of metaphysics concerned with being as such: which kinds of entities exist and what categories or levels of reality there are.

That which is or exists, considered in its most general sense; the subject matter of ontology, contrasted with non-being or mere appearance.

An entity that exists in its own right and supports properties or attributes, rather than depending on something else for its existence.

The relation by which one event, state, or entity brings about or produces another; a central topic in debates about determinism, freedom, and explanation.

The view that every event, including human action, is necessitated by prior causes, so that given the past and the laws of nature only one future is possible.

The branch of philosophy that studies knowledge: its nature, its sources, its scope, and the standards by which claims to know are justified.

Typically analysed as justified true belief, though this account is contested; it involves holding a true belief on adequate grounds rather than by luck.

The reasons or evidence that make a belief rationally acceptable; the element that distinguishes knowledge from mere true opinion.

The property of a statement or belief that corresponds to how things actually are; the goal at which inquiry aims and a condition of knowledge.

The doctrine that experience, especially sense perception, is the primary or sole source of knowledge, with reason playing a secondary organising role.

The doctrine that reason, independent of sense experience, can yield substantive knowledge of reality, as in mathematics and metaphysics.

The direct awareness of objects and qualities through the senses; a central source of knowledge and a subject of sceptical doubt about reliability.

The position that knowledge is impossible or that we should suspend judgement, often supported by arguments showing that our evidence cannot rule out error.

The study of valid reasoning: the principles governing when conclusions follow necessarily or with high probability from given premises.

The mental move from one or more propositions, taken as premises, to a further proposition drawn as a conclusion.

Reasoning in which the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises, so that if the premises are true the conclusion cannot be false.

Reasoning that generalises from observed cases to wider conclusions, yielding conclusions that are probable rather than certain even when premises are true.

A deductive argument consisting of two premises and a conclusion, structured so that a shared middle term links the other terms; central to classical Indian and Aristotelian logic.

A type of argument that appears persuasive but is defective in reasoning, such as attacking a person instead of the claim or appealing improperly to emotion.

The branch of philosophy that examines moral concepts such as right, wrong, good, and duty, and the theories that justify standards of conduct.

A consequentialist theory holding that the right action is the one producing the greatest overall balance of good over harm for all affected parties.

A moral theory that judges actions by their conformity to duties and rules rather than by their consequences, holding some acts wrong in themselves.

An approach focusing on the character and dispositions of the agent, asking what a good person would do rather than applying rules or calculating outcomes.

Kant's supreme moral principle, requiring that one act only on maxims that could be willed as universal law and never treat persons merely as means.

The capacity of agents to choose and act on their own deliberation, a capacity whose compatibility with causal determinism is much debated.

The branch of philosophy concerned with beauty, taste, art, and the nature of aesthetic experience and judgement.

In Indian aesthetics, the savoured aesthetic emotion or flavour evoked in a receptive spectator by a work of art, such as love, heroism, or compassion.

An aesthetic quality of overwhelming greatness or power that exceeds comprehension and pleases through awe rather than through harmonious beauty.

The rational examination of religious claims, including arguments for and against God's existence, the nature of faith, and the problem of evil.

The belief in a personal God who is omnipotent, omniscient, and perfectly good, and who created or sustains the universe.

The disputed relation between religious commitment and rational inquiry: whether faith supplements, conflicts with, or is independent of argument and evidence.

The principle governing fair distribution of benefits and burdens, and the giving to each person what is due, debated in terms of equality, merit, and need.

A theory explaining political obligation as arising from an implicit agreement among people to form a society and accept authority in exchange for security and order.

In political philosophy, the condition of acting without arbitrary interference and of participating in the making of the rules one is subject to.

In Indian philosophy, the principle that actions produce corresponding results that shape present and future conditions of the agent's life.

In Indian thought, the moral and social order, and the duties appropriate to one's role and station; also used for the essential nature of a thing.

Liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering, regarded in most Indian schools as the highest human goal, achieved through knowledge, discipline, or devotion.

In Nyaya logic, the invariable relation of pervasion between a reason and what it signifies, required for a sound inference, as smoke is pervaded by fire.