NVS PGT key terms

The art and science of teaching, covering how instruction is planned, delivered, and assessed. It includes classroom management, lesson design, and understanding how learners acquire knowledge at different stages.

Ongoing evaluation during instruction that gives teachers feedback about student understanding so teaching can be adjusted immediately. It is low-stakes and diagnostic rather than grade-oriented, contrasting with end-of-term summative testing.

Evaluation conducted at the end of a unit, term, or course to measure overall achievement against learning objectives. Results are typically graded and used for reporting, promotion, or certification decisions.

Temporary instructional support given to learners so they can complete a task beyond their current ability, gradually withdrawn as competence grows. It draws on Vygotsky's idea of the zone of proximal development.

The gap between what a learner can do alone and what they can do with guidance from a more capable person. Instruction is most effective when aimed at this range rather than at already-mastered skills.

An assessment approach that spreads evaluation across the school year and covers scholastic and co-scholastic areas such as attitudes, values, and participation, rather than relying only on terminal examinations.

A system where students with disabilities and other diverse needs learn in mainstream classrooms with appropriate accommodations, instead of being segregated. It rests on the principle that all children have equal right to education.

A written document for a student with special needs specifying current performance levels, measurable goals, services to be provided, and how progress will be tracked. It is reviewed periodically with parents and specialists.

Indian legislation of 2009 making free and compulsory education a fundamental right for children aged six to fourteen. It sets norms for pupil-teacher ratios, infrastructure, and prohibits screening procedures and capitation fees.

A hierarchical classification of learning objectives moving from remembering and understanding through applying and analysing to evaluating and creating. Teachers use it to design questions and tasks at varied cognitive levels.

A specific, observable statement of what a learner should know or be able to do after instruction. Good outcomes use action verbs and can be assessed, guiding both lesson planning and evaluation design.

Skinner's theory that behaviour is shaped by its consequences, with reinforcement increasing and punishment decreasing the likelihood of repetition. Teachers apply it through praise, tokens, and structured feedback systems.

Pavlov's model in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus and eventually triggers a learned response on its own. It explains some emotional and reflex-like reactions in classroom settings.

Any consequence that strengthens a behaviour. Positive reinforcement adds a reward such as praise, while negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant condition; both raise the frequency of the desired response.

Gardner's proposal that intelligence is not a single general factor but a set of relatively independent capacities, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal abilities.

The idea that individuals prefer particular modes of taking in information, such as visual, auditory, or kinaesthetic. It is widely used to diversify classroom presentation, though evidence for matching instruction to style is contested.

A cycle in which a teacher identifies a classroom problem, plans an intervention, implements it, observes results, and reflects before repeating. It produces local, practical knowledge rather than generalisable research findings.

The habit of systematically reviewing one's own teaching decisions and their effects in order to improve. It may involve journals, peer observation, or lesson recordings and underpins continuing professional development.

A ratio compares two quantities of the same kind by division, while a proportion states that two ratios are equal. Solving problems usually involves cross-multiplication or finding a common unit value.

A technique in which the value of one unit is found first, then multiplied to obtain the value of the required quantity. It is widely used for work, time, distance, and cost problems.

A fraction expressed with denominator one hundred, used to compare quantities on a common scale. Percentage change equals the difference divided by the original value, multiplied by one hundred.

Simple interest is calculated only on the original principal each period. Compound interest is calculated on principal plus accumulated interest, so the amount grows geometrically and exceeds simple interest over multiple periods.

A class of problems relating the rate at which individuals or groups complete a task to the time taken. Rates add when people work together, so combined time is the reciprocal of the sum of individual rates.

Problems based on the relation that distance equals speed multiplied by time. Common variants involve relative speed for trains moving in the same or opposite directions, and average speed over unequal segments.

The sum of a set of values divided by their count. In aptitude problems, the concept of deviation from an assumed mean often simplifies calculation when values cluster around a convenient figure.

Permutations count ordered arrangements of selected items, while combinations count unordered selections. The distinction matters whenever position or sequence changes the outcome being counted.

A number between zero and one expressing how likely an event is, computed as favourable outcomes divided by total equally likely outcomes. Complementary events sum to one.

A form of deductive reasoning with premises and a conclusion, usually tested through statements about categories and Venn-diagram relationships. A conclusion is valid only if it follows necessarily from every possible arrangement of the premises.

Reasoning from general premises to a specific necessary conclusion. If the premises are true and the form valid, the conclusion cannot be false, unlike inductive reasoning which only makes conclusions probable.

Reasoning from particular observations to a broader generalisation that is probable rather than certain. Number-series and pattern-completion questions in aptitude tests typically require this kind of inference.

A diagram using overlapping circles to represent sets and their relationships. It is a standard tool for checking whether categorical conclusions are forced by the given statements.

A reasoning puzzle in which family relationships are described, often in coded or chained form, and the candidate must determine how two people are related. Drawing a family tree prevents errors.

Puzzles tracking movement through turns and distances to find final position or displacement. Sketching the path on paper, with correct handling of left and right turns, is the reliable method.

Questions where words or numbers are transformed by a rule and the candidate must apply or infer that rule. Letter-position shifts, reversal, and substitution are common patterns.

A sequence of numbers following a hidden rule, with one or more terms to be found. Differences, ratios, squares, cubes, and alternating patterns are the usual underlying operations.

A puzzle placing people in rows or around a table according to relative-position clues. Candidates must combine constraints to reach a single consistent arrangement.

Article 51A of the Indian Constitution lists eleven duties of citizens, including respecting the Constitution, protecting sovereignty, and promoting education for children aged six to fourteen. They are non-justiciable.

Rights guaranteed in Part III of the Indian Constitution, covering equality, freedom, protection from exploitation, religion, cultural and educational rights, and constitutional remedies. They are enforceable in courts.

Guidelines in Part IV of the Indian Constitution directing the state toward social and economic welfare. They are not enforceable in courts but are fundamental in governance and inform policy and legislation.

The opening statement of the Indian Constitution declaring the source of authority as the people and listing the ideals of justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity. It is used as an interpretive aid.

System software that manages hardware resources, schedules processes, and provides services to applications. Examples include Windows, Linux, and Android, and it mediates all interaction between user programs and devices.

Volatile working memory that stores programs and data currently in use, allowing fast read and write access by the processor. Its contents are lost when power is removed, unlike secondary storage.

Software that organises data in rows and columns of cells and recalculates formulas when inputs change. Common functions include SUM, AVERAGE, IF, and VLOOKUP, and charts can be generated from ranges.

The address identifying a resource on the web, typically including a protocol, domain name, and path. It tells the browser where to fetch a page and how to communicate with the server.

A service that indexes web content and returns ranked results for user queries. Understanding operators such as quotation marks for exact phrases and site restrictions improves search precision.

A word with a meaning close to another word in a given context. English usage questions test whether the candidate can select the closest equivalent rather than a merely related term.

A word expressing the opposite meaning of another. Correct selection depends on part of speech and context, since a word may have several opposites depending on how it is used.

A fixed expression whose meaning cannot be derived from its individual words, such as 'to let the cat out of the bag'. Idioms are tested for correct meaning and appropriate use.

Grammatical structures that place the doer first or the receiver first respectively. Transformation requires changing the verb form to the past participle and adjusting the subject and object.

Reporting someone's words either exactly in quotation marks or paraphrased with a reporting verb. Conversion involves shifting tenses, pronouns, and time and place references consistently.

दो वर्णों या शब्दों के मेल से उत्पन्न विकार को संधि कहते हैं। स्वर संधि, व्यंजन संधि और विसर्ग संधि इसके मुख्य भेद हैं, और परीक्षा में संधि-विच्छेद पूछा जाता है।

दो या अधिक शब्दों के मेल से बने संक्षिप्त पद को समास कहते हैं। तत्पुरुष, कर्मधारय, द्विगु, द्वंद्व, बहुव्रीहि और अव्ययीभाव इसके भेद हैं।

उपसर्ग शब्द के आरम्भ में जुड़कर अर्थ बदलता है और प्रत्यय अंत में जुड़कर नया रूप या भाव बनाता है। दोनों से बने शब्दों की पहचान परीक्षा में सामान्यतः पूछी जाती है।

ऐसा वाक्यांश जिसका अर्थ शब्दों के सामान्य अर्थ से भिन्न होता है। मुहावरे का प्रयोग वाक्य में विशेष अर्थ देने के लिए होता है और उसका अर्थ पूछा जाता है।

जनसमाज में प्रचलित सूक्ति या कहावत, जो अनुभवजन्य ज्ञान को संक्षेप में व्यक्त करती है। यह मुहावरे से भिन्न है क्योंकि यह पूर्ण वाक्य होती है।