Human Development and Family Studies: Principles, Milestones and Life Stages
Principles of development
Development is continuous and lifelong, follows the cephalocaudal direction (head to tail) and the proximodistal direction (centre of the body outwards), moves from general to specific responses, and shows individual differences. Stages: prenatal, infancy, babyhood, early and middle childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age.
Prenatal and infancy
The prenatal period has three trimesters; the first is the most vulnerable to teratogens (alcohol, drugs, infection, radiation). Normal birth weight is about 2.5–3.5 kg. Typical milestones (approximate): social smile at about 6 weeks, head control by 3 months, sitting without support 6–8 months, standing with support 9 months, walking 12–15 months, two-word sentences by about 2 years. Breast milk is the complete food for the first six months, with complementary feeding starting at 6 months.
Childhood and old age
Early childhood is the play age; play types include solitary, parallel, associative and cooperative. Old age brings retirement, role change, possible loss of spouse and income, and adjustment to reduced physical capacity.
Worked example
A 7-month-old can sit with a little support but cannot yet crawl or walk. Is this delayed? Reasoning: sitting with support is expected around 6 months and independent sitting at 6–8 months, while walking belongs to 12–15 months and is not yet due. Applying the cephalocaudal principle, head and trunk control appear before leg control, so the sequence is normal.
Traps
- Swapping cephalocaudal and proximodistal.
- Treating milestones as fixed deadlines rather than wide ranges.
- Describing old age only as decline, ignoring continued development and adjustment.