WBCHSE Journalism cheat sheet

Mass communication = one source to a large, heterogeneous, anonymous audience through a technological channel; interpersonal communication is face-to-face and immediate.

Lasswell's model (1948): Who says What in Which channel to Whom with What effect - five elements mapping to communicator, message, medium, receiver, feedback/effect.

Shannon–Weaver (1949) linear model adds encoder, decoder and noise; Schramm's model introduces the field of experience and two-way feedback.

Four normative theories of the press (Siebert, Peterson, Schramm, 1956): authoritarian, libertarian, social responsibility, Soviet communist.

Gatekeeping (Lewin, adapted by White) = the process by which editors select and reject content; agenda-setting (McCombs & Shaw, 1972) = media tell audiences what to think about.

McLuhan's 'the medium is the message' and the hot/cold medium distinction; cultivation theory (Gerbner) links repeated TV exposure to perception of reality.

Hard news covers events and issues of immediate public consequence; soft news covers human interest and lifestyle; both follow the 5W1H (what, who, when, where, why, how).

In the Indian context 'mass communication' includes print, radio, television, film, advertising, PR and digital/social media; journalism is a subset that gathers and verifies news.

James Augustus Hicky's Bengal Gazette (1780, Calcutta) is regarded as the first newspaper in India; it was a two-sheet weekly critical of the East India Company.

Vernacular press: Raja Rammohan Roy's Sambad Kaumudi (Bengali, 1821) and Mirat-ul-Akhbar (Persian, 1822); the Vernacular Press Act of 1878 (Lytton) restricted non-English papers.

The Newspaper (Incitement to Offences) Act 1908 and the Indian Press Act 1910 followed the 1907 partition of Bengal and the swadeshi press; the Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act 1931 gave wide control.

Bengali journalism milestones: Digdarshan (1818, Serampore), Samachar Darpan (1818), Tattwabodhini Patrika (1843), Somprakash (1858, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar), Amrita Bazar Patrika (1868, Sisir Kumar Ghosh).

Amrita Bazar Patrika shifted from Bengali to English overnight in 1878 to escape the Vernacular Press Act; The Bengalee (1862) was associated with Surendranath Banerjea.

Gandhi's Young India (1919) and Harijan (1933), Tilak's Kesari and Maratha (1881), and Jawaharlal Nehru's National Herald (1938) exemplify the nationalist press.

Post-Independence: Press Council of India (1966), Prasar Bharati (1990), the 1991 economic liberalisation and satellite TV (STAR TV, 1991), and the rise of Hindi and regional newspapers after the 2000s.

Bengali television: Doordarshan Kolkata (1975) preceded private channels; 24-hour Bengali news began with Tara Newz (2005) and expanded with ABP Ananda, Zee 24 Ghanta and Kolkata TV.

News values (Galtung & Ruge): timeliness, proximity, prominence, consequence/impact, novelty/oddity, conflict, human interest, currency and magnitude.

The inverted pyramid puts the most newsworthy material in the lead (who/what/when/where/why), followed by important details in descending order; the alternative is the chronological or narrative form.

A lead answers the 5W1H in one or two sentences; a delayed/soft lead opens with an anecdote or description before the main point.

Attribution rules: on the record (named), on background (not for attribution), deep background, and off the record; anonymous sourcing needs a stated reason and editorial approval.

A source must be independent, authoritative and informed; corroboration by two independent sources is the standard for controversial or damaging claims.

Interview technique: open questions for detail, closed questions for confirmation, funnel structure, and the 'dumb question' to elicit explanation for readers.

Beat reporting requires a source list, regular checking of official records (municipal, police, court, RTI), and continuity; the reporter is the newsroom's early-warning system.

Observation and documents outrank hearsay: public records, RTI replies, court filings, budgets and audit reports are verifiable and legally safer than verbal tip-offs.

News writing rules: active voice, short sentences, one idea per sentence, attribution before or immediately after the statement, past tense for reported events.

Headline types: straight/banner, kicker, cross-line, drop/cascade, label, and feature headlines; headline tense is present for past events and infinitive for future.

Copy-editing checklist: accuracy of names, figures and designations; consistency of spelling and style; legal risk (defamation, contempt); length and structure; grammar and punctuation.

Style sheet items typically fixed by a newsroom: numerals (spell out one to nine, use figures from 10), titles, abbreviations, dates, currency, and the use of 'per cent' versus '%'.

Sub-editing operations: trimming to fit, rewriting the intro, reordering paragraphs, checking the nut graf, writing captions and crossheads, and final proofreading.

Caption rules: identify people left to right, do not state the obvious, add information not in the story, and always credit the photographer or agency.

Proofreading marks and terminology: stet (let it stand), delete, transpose, insert, close up; a 'galley' is an early proof and 'stone sub' is the final-stage editor.

Typography and layout: point size measures type, pica (6 picas = 1 inch) measures column width, and white space, modular grids and photographs guide reader flow.

Radio writing is for the ear: short sentences, conversational tone, no unfamiliar abbreviations, numbers rounded and read aloud, and script timing of about 3 words per second.

Television news packages combine visuals, sound bites, voice-over and graphics; the reporter writes to pictures, not the reverse, and avoids describing what the viewer can see.

Broadcast regulation in India: the Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act 1995, the Programme Code and Advertising Code, and self-regulation via the News Broadcasters Federation/NBA.

Prasar Bharati (1990) is the autonomous corporation for All India Radio and Doordarshan; AIR's FM and community radio policy (2006) permits NGOs and educational institutions.

Digital journalism terms: SEO headline, hyperlink, standfirst, pull quote, embedded media, live blog, newsletter, paywall and metered access.

Verification for social media: check the original upload, metadata and geolocation, reverse image search, account history, and cross-reference with on-ground sources before publishing user-generated content.

Web writing differs from print: shorter paragraphs, scannable subheads, front-loaded keywords, mobile-first length, and analytics (page views, time on page, scroll depth) informing placement.

Convergence means one newsroom producing text, audio, video and graphics; the 'mojo' (mobile journalist) model and content management systems (CMS) are standard workflow tools.

AIDA is the classic advertising model: Attention, Interest, Desire, Action; DAGMAR (Colley) frames objectives as Awareness, Comprehension, Conviction, Action.

The advertising mix: media planning (reach, frequency, GRP = reach × frequency), copy strategy, creative execution, and budget methods such as percentage of sales and objective-and-task.

Types of advertising: informative, persuasive, reminder, comparative, cooperative, public service and institutional/corporate image advertising.

Advertising codes in India: the Advertising Standards Council of India (ASCI) Code and the Cable TV Advertising Code; ads for tobacco and alcohol are prohibited, and misleading ads are actionable under the Consumer Protection Act 2019.

PR differs from advertising: PR is earned, non-paid coverage with third-party credibility; advertising is paid, controlled and identified as an advertisement.

PR tools: press release (inverted-pyramid form, embargo, dateline, boilerplate), press conference, media kit, press note, backgrounder, newsletter, open house and crisis communication.

The PR process (Cutlip & Center): research, planning/programming, communication/action, and evaluation; the RACE acronym matches these four steps.

Corporate identity tools include logo, house style, mission statement and CSR; sponsorship and event management are increasingly merged with PR practice.

Defamation: a published statement that lowers reputation; defences are truth (justification), fair comment, privilege and consent; in India both civil and criminal (IPC 499/500) liability exist.

Constitutional basis: Article 19(1)(a) guarantees freedom of speech and expression; Article 19(2) permits reasonable restrictions on grounds including security of the state, public order, decency and contempt of court.

Contempt of court (Contempt of Courts Act 1971): civil contempt = wilful disobedience; criminal contempt = scandalising the court or prejudicing proceedings; 'sub judice' reporting is restricted.

The Press Council of India (1966) is a quasi-judicial body that censures newspapers but cannot impose penalties; the PCI's Norms of Journalistic Conduct govern ethics.

Official Secrets Act 1923, the Right to Information Act 2005 (Section 8 exemptions), and the Whistle Blowers Protection Act 2014 govern access to and disclosure of information.

Copyright Act 1957 protects original literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works; fair dealing for reporting and criticism is limited, and photographs need permission or credit.

Ethics: accuracy, fairness, privacy, avoiding conflict of interest, refusing freebies, correcting errors promptly, and not accepting paid news (prohibited by the PCI and the Representation of the People Act).

The Press and Registration of Books Act 1867 requires registration of newspapers and printing presses, and the Working Journalists Act 1955 sets service conditions for journalists.

News report format: headline, byline, dateline, lead (25–35 words), body with quotes and attribution, and a kicker or concluding quote; length typically 200–300 words for internal assessment.

Feature structure: headline, standfirst, anecdotal lead, nut graf, body with quotes and facts, and a circular or forward-looking ending; length typically 500–800 words.

Interview assignment: prepare 8–10 questions, record with consent, transcribe accurately, and present as a Q&A or reported piece with a short introduction.

Press release practical: 'FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE', date and place, headline, lead, body, quotes, boilerplate 'About us', and media contact details.

Layout practical: dummy page with masthead, dateline, ear panels, folio (page number and date), columns, headlines, photographs with captions and advertisements.

Evaluation criteria for internal assessment usually include accuracy, structure, originality, language, adherence to deadline and evidence of primary sourcing.

Portfolio components: three news reports, one feature, one interview, one press release, one advertisement copy and a media law/ethics case note, submitted with a reflective log.

Plagiarism and attribution: quote and cite sources, do not copy press releases verbatim, and declare any AI-assisted or secondary material in the submission.