Iran CAO PPL Theory cheat sheet

ICAO Annex 2 (Rules of the Air) applies over the high seas and, unless states file differences, over national territory; Iran's AIP (GEN 1.7) lists any differences.

VMC minima in Class G below 3,050 m (10,000 ft) AMSL: 5 km flight visibility, 1,500 m horizontally and 300 m (1,000 ft) vertically from cloud.

VMC minima in Class C–E airspace: 8 km visibility at and above 3,050 m AMSL, 5 km below; 1,500 m horizontal and 300 m vertical cloud separation.

Semi-circular rule: magnetic tracks 000–179° use odd flight levels, 180–359° use even flight levels; VFR above 3,050 m uses 500 ft offsets (e.g. 035, 055).

A controlled flight must request an ATC clearance before entering controlled airspace and must read back route, level and any hold/speed instructions.

Position reporting over compulsory reporting points includes aircraft identification, position, time, flight level and next position with ETA.

Aircraft on converging tracks: the one with the other on its right gives way; head-on both turn right; overtaking aircraft keeps clear, passing to the right.

An aircraft in distress has right of way over all others; emergency frequency 121.5 MHz, emergency transponder code 7700, radio failure 7600, unlawful interference 7500.

AIP, NOTAM and AIRAC cycle (28 days) are the legal sources for aerodrome, airspace and procedure changes; Iran uses Tehran FIR (OIIX) as the main FIR.

Four-stroke cycle order: induction, compression, power, exhaust; the crankshaft turns twice per complete cycle.

Mixture control: full rich for take-off and climb; lean for cruise above ~3,000 ft to keep EGT about 50 °F rich of peak for best power or peak EGT for best economy.

Carburettor icing is most likely at ambient 0 to +15 °C with high humidity; apply carb heat before reducing power on descent.

Static pressure drives ASI, altimeter and VSI; a blocked static port makes the ASI read high in climb and low in descent, altimeter freezes, VSI reads zero.

Pitot heat is used in visible moisture near or below freezing; a blocked pitot tube makes the ASI behave like an altimeter in climb/descent.

Electrical system: alternator/generator charges the battery through a voltage regulator; the ammeter shows charge or discharge, not battery capacity.

Magnetic compass: deviation is the error caused by aircraft magnetic fields, corrected on a compass correction card; variation is the angle between true and magnetic north.

Fuel system: check quantity and selector before flight, use both tanks in level flight, and know unusable fuel; fuel gauges are only required to be accurate at zero.

EGT and CHT gauge limits: CHT above the POH red line indicates detonation or pre-ignition risk; reduce power and enrich mixture.

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 × (OAT − ISA temperature); performance tables assume ISA unless corrected.

Take-off and landing distances increase roughly 10 % per 1,000 ft of density altitude and per 10 % of weight increase above the reference.

Headwind component = wind speed × cos(angle between runway heading and wind); crosswind = wind speed × sin(angle).

Maximum crosswind component is a POH limitation; check it against the reported wind before every take-off and landing.

Centre of gravity forward of the limit increases stick force and landing distance; aft of the limit reduces stability and can make recovery from a stall difficult.

Weight and balance: moment = weight × arm; total moment divided by total weight gives the CG arm; empty weight plus payload plus fuel must not exceed MTOM.

Climb gradient (%) = (climb rate in ft/min ÷ groundspeed in kt) × 60 ÷ 6076 × 100, approximated as rate ÷ groundspeed × 100.

Fuel planning: trip fuel + taxi + contingency + alternate + final reserve (30 min VFR by day, 45 min IFR) must be carried; verify against POH consumption.

Landing distance required must not exceed the available landing distance (LDA) with the reported wind and runway condition.

Hypoxia symptoms: euphoria, tingling, impaired judgement, cyanosis; time of useful consciousness at 25,000 ft is about 3–5 minutes without oxygen.

Hyperventilation causes dizziness and tingling; correct by slowing the breathing rate, not by increasing oxygen flow.

Spatial disorientation: rely on instruments, not sensations; the leans and somatogravic illusion occur in acceleration and in low-visibility climbs.

Cabin altitude above 10,000 ft requires supplemental oxygen for crew; above 14,000 ft for all occupants; check the POH for the aircraft's oxygen system.

Alcohol: minimum 8 hours bottle-to-throttle, and blood alcohol below 0.02 %; fatigue and alcohol both degrade judgement before physical symptoms appear.

Night vision: use off-centre viewing (10–15° from the object), allow 30 minutes for dark adaptation, and avoid white light in the cockpit.

Stress and workload: use the IM SAFE checklist (Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol, Fatigue, Emotion) before flight.

Decompression sickness after diving: allow at least 24 hours between scuba diving and flight above 8,000 ft cabin altitude (12 hours below).

Colour vision and hearing: standard aviation medical requires normal colour perception; noise-induced hearing loss is prevented by headsets and limited exposure.

ISA: sea level 15 °C and 1013.25 hPa; temperature lapse rate 2 °C per 1,000 ft up to the tropopause at about 36,000 ft.

QNH set on the altimeter gives altitude above mean sea level; QFE gives height above the aerodrome; QNE (1013.25) is used above the transition altitude.

Pressure altitude = indicated altitude + 30 ft × (1013.25 − QNH in hPa); lower QNH means a higher true altitude.

Cloud types: cumulonimbus indicates thunderstorms and severe turbulence; stratocumulus and stratus indicate stable air; altocumulus lenticularis indicates mountain wave.

Icing: clear ice from large supercooled droplets in cumuliform cloud; rime ice from small droplets in stratiform cloud; both require visible moisture at 0 to −20 °C.

Thunderstorm life cycle: cumulus, mature, dissipating; avoid the mature stage by at least 20 NM, especially downwind of the cell.

Wind: veering means clockwise shift; backing means anticlockwise; a 90° crosswind gives the maximum crosswind component.

METAR and TAF use QNH in hPa in Iran; SPECI is issued on significant change; trend forecasts follow the main report.

Mountain wave and Foehn effects: expect downdraughts and turbulence on the lee side; lenticular clouds mark the wave crest.

True course ± wind correction angle gives true heading; add easterly variation to convert true to magnetic (east is least, west is best is for converting magnetic to true).

Time en route = distance ÷ groundspeed; fuel used = time × hourly consumption.

1 in 60 rule: a 1 NM offset after 60 NM equals 1° of track error; correct with a closing angle to rejoin.

Dead reckoning uses heading, time and speed; pilotage uses ground features; both are cross-checked with radio navigation aids.

A VOR radial is the magnetic bearing from the station; the CDI centres when the selected OBS matches the radial.

NDB/ADF: the needle points to the station relative to the aircraft nose; relative bearing plus heading equals magnetic bearing to the station.

DME gives slant range in NM; ground distance = √(DME² − altitude in NM²).

Compass deviation and variation must both be applied to obtain the magnetic heading for the compass; check the correction card.

GNSS/RNAV: waypoints are defined by coordinates; RAIM availability must be checked for the planned route and time before an RNAV approach.

Pre-flight: check documents (certificate of registration, airworthiness, radio licence, insurance), mass and balance, fuel, weather and NOTAM.

Passenger briefing covers seat belts, exits, oxygen use, smoking prohibition and emergency procedures before take-off.

Engine failure after take-off: maintain control, pitch for best glide (VY or POH value), select a landing area, do not turn back below 500 ft AGL.

Go-around: full power, carb heat cold, positive rate of climb, flaps up in stages, then follow the missed approach procedure.

Emergency descent: power idle, speed brakes/flaps as allowed, turn away from the airway, descend to 10,000 ft or MSA, and squawk 7700.

Fire in flight: shut off fuel and electrics to the affected engine, use the extinguisher, and land as soon as practicable.

Wake turbulence: fly above the preceding aircraft's path and land beyond its touchdown point; avoid the vortices by staying upwind.

Runway incursion prevention: read back hold-short instructions, use standard phraseology, and keep a listening watch on the tower frequency.

Checklists are used as written; memory items apply only to time-critical emergencies, then the checklist is completed.

Lift = ½ × ρ × V² × S × CL; lift increases with the square of speed and with air density.

Induced drag decreases with speed; parasite drag increases with the square of speed; total drag is minimum at the speed for best glide.

Angle of attack is the angle between the wing chord line and the relative airflow; the stall occurs at the critical angle of attack, independent of speed and weight.

Load factor = lift ÷ weight; a 60° bank gives a load factor of 2 and raises the stall speed by about 41 %.

Stall speed increases with the square root of the load factor: VS(new) = VS × √n.

Asymmetric thrust: the left-turning tendency (P-factor, torque, slipstream, gyroscopic precession) is corrected with right rudder, most at high power and low speed.

Stability: positive static stability returns the aircraft to equilibrium; the CG must be forward of the neutral point for longitudinal stability.

Flaps increase lift and drag; they lower the stall speed but reduce the climb gradient and increase landing distance if extended beyond the recommended setting.

Ground effect reduces induced drag within one wingspan of the ground; the aircraft may float in the flare and settle abruptly if the speed is allowed to decay.

Initial call: station called, aircraft identification, position, altitude/flight level, and intentions; keep it brief and use standard phraseology.

Read-back is mandatory for clearances, runway and hold-short instructions, altimeter settings, headings, speeds and frequencies.

Distress call: MAYDAY ×3 with callsign, position, nature of distress and intentions; urgency call: PAN-PAN ×3.

Altimeter setting is passed as QNH in hPa, e.g. "QNH 1013"; say "one zero one three" digit by digit.

Numbers: say each digit separately except whole hundreds/thousands of feet, e.g. "one thousand two hundred"; heading 090 is "heading zero nine zero".

Position report format: callsign, position and time, flight level, next position and ETA, and the following significant point.

Radio failure in VMC: continue VFR, land at the nearest suitable aerodrome and report arrival; in IMC follow the published lost-communication procedure.

Emergency frequency 121.5 MHz; guard the frequency and use the transponder codes 7700, 7600 and 7500 as appropriate.

Standard words: ROGER (received), WILCO (will comply), AFFIRM, NEGATIVE, STANDBY, REQUEST, CONFIRM, SAY AGAIN, CORRECTION.