MA Police Civil Service key terms

The rule that a verb must match its subject in number: a singular subject takes a singular verb and a plural subject takes a plural verb, even when other words come between them.

Two or more complete sentences joined without correct punctuation or a connecting word, so the reader cannot easily tell where one idea ends and the next begins.

Joining two complete sentences with only a comma and no conjunction. The result is a run-on that makes the link between the two ideas unclear.

A descriptive phrase placed so that it does not clearly attach to the word it describes, usually because the intended subject is missing, which makes the sentence confusing or absurd.

A sentence pattern in which the subject does the action, as in "The officer wrote the report." It is usually shorter and clearer than passive voice.

Giving items in a list or comparison the same grammatical form, so nouns match nouns or verbs match verbs, which makes the sentence read smoothly and logically.

The requirement that a pronoun match the noun it stands for in number and gender, so a singular noun takes a singular pronoun and the reference stays clear.

The sentence, often first in a paragraph, that states the paragraph's main point and tells the reader what the rest of the paragraph will explain or support.

The central point a passage is making about its subject. It is broader than any single detail and is often stated in a topic sentence or must be inferred.

A conclusion drawn from clues in the text plus the reader's own knowledge, rather than from a statement the author makes directly.

A fact, example, statistic, or description that backs up a passage's main idea and helps the reader see why the main point is true.

Information in nearby words or sentences that helps a reader work out the meaning of an unfamiliar word without using a dictionary.

The difference between a statement that can be verified and one that expresses a belief, judgment, or feeling. Tests often ask which is which in a passage.

The reason a writer produced a text, such as to inform, persuade, entertain, or explain. It shapes the tone and the kinds of details included.

The mental process of focusing on one thing while filtering out competing sights and sounds. It explains why a person can miss details even while watching closely.

Recall means producing information from memory without cues, while recognition means identifying something as familiar when it is shown. Recognition is usually easier and more reliable.

A report of what a witness observed about a person, vehicle, or scene, ideally covering height, build, clothing, and distinguishing features in a fixed order.

The gradual loss of detail in a memory over time. Descriptions recorded soon after an event are usually more complete and accurate than those given later.

Grouping separate pieces of information into larger meaningful units, such as a phone number in three parts, so more can be held in short-term memory.

Reasoning that starts with a general rule or premise and applies it to a specific case to reach a conclusion that must follow if the premises are true.

Reasoning that moves from specific observations or examples to a general conclusion. The conclusion is probable rather than certain, because it goes beyond the evidence.

An unstated belief that an argument depends on. If the assumption is false, the argument's conclusion loses its support even when the stated facts are correct.

A three-part argument made of two premises and a conclusion, where the conclusion is supposed to follow logically from the premises. Validity depends on form, not truth.

The ranking order through which orders and information travel in an organization. An officer generally reports to and takes direction from the next level up.

The authority to choose among reasonable courses of action within policy and law, such as deciding whether a warning or a citation best fits the situation.

Techniques such as calm communication, distance, time, and active listening used to reduce tension and lower the chance that a situation becomes violent.

The obligation of an officer to step in, and report, when a colleague uses excessive or unlawful force, rather than remaining silent or looking away.

The duty to protect sensitive information learned on the job and to share it only with those who have a legitimate need to know.

The ability to recognize how a person's background, language, and customs shape behavior and to adjust one's own communication so it is respectful and understood.

A comparison of two quantities by division, showing how much of one thing there is for each unit of another, often written as 3:1 or as a fraction.

The amount of increase or decrease expressed as a share of the original value, found by dividing the change by the original and multiplying by 100.

The arithmetic average, found by adding all the values and dividing by how many values there are. It is pulled up or down by unusually high or low numbers.

The middle value in a list arranged from smallest to largest. When there is an even number of values, it is the average of the two middle ones.

A ratio that compares two different units, such as miles per hour or calls per shift, and is used to predict totals over time or distance.

A number from 0 to 1 expressing how likely an event is, calculated for simple cases as favorable outcomes divided by all equally likely outcomes.

The four main compass points-north, south, east, and west-used as a frame of reference for giving and following directions on a map.

The relationship between distance on a map and distance in the real world, such as one inch equals one mile, used to estimate actual distances.

A key on a map or diagram that explains what its symbols, colors, and lines stand for, so the user can read the drawing correctly.

A pair of letters and numbers, such as row and column labels, that pinpoints an exact location on a map or diagram.

Describing where something is by comparing it with other objects, such as "two blocks north of the school," rather than by absolute coordinates.