Moldova Bacalaureat History of Romanians and Universal History cheat sheet

Dacia: Burebista (c. 82–44 BC) unified Geto-Dacian tribes; Decebal (87–106 AD) fought Domitian and Trajan; Trajan's two wars (101–102, 105–106) ended at Sarmizegetusa Regia and Dacia became a Roman province in 106.

Roman Dacia (106–271/275) was abandoned under Aurelian; the withdrawal of the army and administration, not of the whole population, underpins continuity arguments in Romanian historiography.

Ethnogenesis debate: the 'Daco-Roman continuity' thesis (population remained north of the Danube) versus the 'immigrationist' thesis (Romanized population moved south, returning later); key evidence includes place names, the Romanian language's Latin base, and archaeological continuity.

Christianity north of the Danube is attested by the 4th century (Ulfilas preached among Goths); the term 'Vlach'/'Valah' appears in sources from the 10th–11th centuries (e.g., Byzantine and Hungarian texts).

Medieval state formation: the voivodates of Transylvania (Gelu, Glad, Menumorut mentioned in the Gesta Hungarorum) were followed by the founding of Wallachia (Basarab I, c. 1310–1352, battle of Posada 1330) and Moldavia (Bogdan I, c. 1359).

Universal medieval landmarks: fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), Charlemagne crowned emperor (800), Great Schism (1054), Magna Carta (1215), fall of Constantinople (1453), end of the Reconquista (1492).

Key rulers: Mircea the Elder (1386–1418, battles of Rovine 1394 and Nicopolis 1396), Iancu de Hunedoara (Voivode of Transylvania, victory at Belgrade 1456), Vlad the Impaler (1448, 1456–1462, 1476), Stephen the Great (1457–1504, victory at Vaslui 1475, high point of Moldavian power).

Institutions: the assembly of the country (Sfatul domnesc/Divan), boyars, free peasants (răzeși), and the Orthodox Church; the first Romanian-language religious text, the Letter of Neacșu of Câmpulung, dates to 1521.

Ottoman suzerainty: Wallachia and Moldavia became tributary principalities in the 15th–16th centuries, keeping internal autonomy, their own rulers, and the Orthodox faith in exchange for tribute (haraci) and military obligations.

Transylvania: after the Battle of Mohács (1526) and the Treaty of Speyer (1570), it became a separate principality under Ottoman suzerainty; the Union of the Three Nations (1437/1542, reaffirmed 1568 at Turda) excluded Romanians from political power.

Michael the Brave (Mihai Viteazul): ruler of Wallachia (1593–1601), entered Alba Iulia in 1599 and Moldavia in 1600, briefly uniting the three principalities; defeated at Mirăslău (1600) and killed at Câmpia Turzii (1601).

Reforms and crises: Dimitrie Cantemir's alliance with Peter the Great (1711, Pruth campaign); the Phanariot regime in Wallachia and Moldavia (1711/1716–1821); the Habsburg takeover of Transylvania (1688–1699, Treaty of Karlowitz).

Enlightenment and culture: the Transylvanian School (Școala Ardeleană) - Samuil Micu, Gheorghe Șincai, Ion Budai-Deleanu - promoted Latin origin and the Latin alphabet; the first Romanian grammar and the Supplex Libellus Valachorum (1791).

European context: Thirty Years' War (1618–1648, Peace of Westphalia), English Civil War and Glorious Revolution (1688), the Enlightenment, the French Revolution (1789), and the partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795).

Economy and society: serfdom consolidated through the 'legi' (pravile) and the 1746/1749 regulations in Wallachia and Moldavia; the 1784 Horea–Cloșca–Crișan uprising in Transylvania was triggered by the conscription and noble privileges.

Treaties: Karlowitz (1699), Passarowitz (1718) - Oltenia under Habsburg rule until 1739 - Belgrade (1739), and Kuchuk-Kainarji (1774), which gave Russia a protectorate role over Ottoman Christians.

Revolution of 1848: proclamations at Islaz (June 1848) and in Moldavia; demands included abolition of serfdom, universal suffrage, national unity; the movement was suppressed by Ottoman and Russian troops.

Union of the Principalities: the Paris Convention (1858) allowed separate elections; the double election of Alexandru Ioan Cuza in Iași (5 January 1859) and Bucharest (24 January 1859) created the personal union, recognized by the Ottoman Empire and the Powers.

Cuza's reforms: secularization of monastery estates (1863), agrarian reform (1864) freeing peasants with land, the 1864 Constitution, and the founding of universities in Iași (1860) and Bucharest (1864).

Hohenzollern dynasty: Cuza abdicated in 1866; Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen became Carol I; the 1866 Constitution established a constitutional monarchy; Romania gained full independence in 1877–1878 (Treaty of Berlin), with Dobruja added.

Kingdom proclaimed in 1881; the National Liberal Party (1875) and the Conservative Party alternated in government; the 1866 and 1879 constitutions restricted citizenship, notably excluding Jews.

Transylvania and the national movement: the Memorandum of 1892 (Ioan Rațiu, Gheorghe Pop de Băsești) was sent to Emperor Franz Joseph; the Transylvanian Romanian National Party and the Greek-Catholic and Orthodox churches led the movement.

European context: Congress of Vienna (1815), revolutions of 1830 and 1848, Italian and German unification (1861, 1871), the Paris Commune (1871), and the Berlin Congress (1878).

Modernization: the first railway (Bucharest–Giurgiu, 1869), the National Bank of Romania (1880), and the beginnings of industry and oil extraction (Ploiești).

Balkan Wars (1912–1913): Romania intervened in 1913 and obtained Southern Dobruja (Quadrilateral) by the Treaty of Bucharest (1913).

World War I: Romania entered on the Entente side in August 1916; after the occupation of Bucharest (December 1916) the capital moved to Iași; the armistice of Focșani (1917) and the Treaty of Bucharest (1918) were annulled by the Armistice of Belgrade (1918).

Greater Romania: Bessarabia declared union on 27 March/9 April 1918, Bukovina on 28 November 1918, and Transylvania at Alba Iulia on 1 December 1918; the treaties of Saint-Germain (1919), Neuilly (1919), and Trianon (1920) confirmed the borders.

Interwar politics: the 1923 Constitution; the National Peasants' Party (1926); the Regency (1927–1930); the authoritarian royal dictatorship of Carol II (1938); the Iron Guard (Legion of the Archangel Michael) as a fascist movement.

World War II: the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (1939); the Soviet ultimatum and annexation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina (June 1940); the Second Vienna Award (30 August 1940); the Treaty of Craiova (September 1940); Ion Antonescu's dictatorship from September 1940.

War on the Eastern Front: Romania joined Operation Barbarossa in June 1941, recaptured Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, and fought at Odessa and Stalingrad; the Holocaust in Romania (Iași pogrom, June 1941; deportations to Transnistria).

23 August 1944: King Michael's coup removed Antonescu and brought Romania onto the Allied side; the armistice of 12 September 1944; the Paris Peace Treaty (1947) restored Transylvania but not Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina.

European context: Treaty of Versailles (1919), League of Nations (1920), the Great Depression (1929), the rise of totalitarian regimes in Germany, Italy, and the USSR.

Communist takeover: 30 December 1947 the monarchy was abolished and the Romanian People's Republic proclaimed; the Romanian Communist Party (PCR) was marginal before 1944 but gained power with Soviet support; the 1948 Constitution.

Stalinist period (1948–1965): nationalization (1948), collectivization (1949–1962), the Securitate, political trials, the Pitești prison experiment, and the Bărăgan deportations; Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej led the party from 1948 to 1965.

National communism: the 1964 'Declaration of Independence' of the PCR; Romania was the only Warsaw Pact member to keep diplomatic relations with Israel after 1967 and did not join the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia.

Ceaușescu regime (1965–1989): Nicolae Ceaușescu became general secretary in 1965 and president in 1974; the 1966 ban on abortion; the 1971 'July Theses'; the cult of personality; the 1982 debt repayment policy and the severe austerity of the 1980s.

Romanian Revolution: protests in Timișoara from 16 December 1989, then Bucharest; Ceaușescu fled on 22 December and was executed on 25 December; the National Salvation Front (FSN) took power.

Post-1989: the 1991 Constitution; the mineriads (1990, 1991); the 1996 alternation in power; NATO membership in 2004; EU accession on 1 January 2007.

Cold War landmarks: the Truman Doctrine (1947), the Marshall Plan (1947), NATO (1949), the Warsaw Pact (1955), the Berlin Wall (1961–1989), the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), and the fall of the USSR (1991).

Comecon (1949) and the Warsaw Treaty Organization (1955) integrated Romania into the Soviet bloc; the Helsinki Final Act (1975) and the 1989 revolutions in Eastern Europe.

Source types: primary sources (chronicles, charters, inscriptions, coins, letters, treaties, memoirs) versus secondary sources (historiography, monographs); written, material, oral, and audiovisual sources.

Source criticism: external criticism (authenticity, date, authorship, provenance) and internal criticism (credibility, bias, purpose, context); corroboration of independent sources.

Chronology: BC/AD, centuries (the 15th century = 1401–1500; the 20th century = 1901–2000); decades; 'circa' (c.) for approximate dates; the Julian versus Gregorian calendar (Romania adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1919).

Cartography: map scale (large scale = small area and more detail); the legend; cardinal points; latitude and longitude; reading historical maps for borders, routes, and battles.

Concepts: nation, state, sovereignty, autonomy, suzerainty, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, modernization, industrialization, nationalism, totalitarianism.

Periodization: Antiquity, the Middle Ages (5th–15th centuries), the early modern period (16th–18th centuries), the modern period (19th century–1918), the contemporary period - with debate on the boundaries.

Historiography: the chroniclers (Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Ion Neculce) and the 19th–20th century historians (Nicolae Iorga, Constantin C. Giurescu); the role of archaeology, epigraphy, numismatics, and diplomatics.

Bias and interpretation: anachronism (judging the past by present standards), presentism, and the difference between fact, opinion, and interpretation; citing sources in a structured way.

Primary versus secondary sources: a charter issued in 1400 is primary; a 2005 monograph about it is secondary.

External criticism asks whether a source is genuine; internal criticism asks whether it is credible and what it means.

Century rule: a year belongs to the century obtained by adding 1 to the first two digits (1453 is in the 15th century; 1900 is in the 19th century).

Map scale rule: a 1:25,000 map shows more detail over a smaller area than a 1:1,000,000 map.

Chronology anchors: 106 Roman conquest of Dacia; 1453 fall of Constantinople; 1918 Greater Romania; 1947 abolition of the monarchy; 1989 revolution; 2007 EU accession.

Concept pairings: suzerainty (Ottoman Empire over the principalities) versus sovereignty (a fully independent state); autonomy versus independence.

Bias check: identify the author, date, audience, and purpose of a source before using it as evidence.

Source types: written (chronicles, charters, laws, letters), material (coins, weapons, buildings), oral (folklore, interviews), audiovisual (photographs, films, recordings).

Criticism steps: provenance, authenticity, date, authorship, purpose, audience, bias, corroboration.

Chronology: BC counts down to 1 BC, AD counts up from 1 AD; there is no year 0; 'circa' marks approximate dates.

Cartography: read the title, legend, scale, orientation, and grid; historical maps show borders at a specific date and must be dated.

Concepts: nation, nationalism, state, sovereignty, autonomy, suzerainty, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, totalitarianism, modernization.

Periodization: Antiquity, Middle Ages, early modern, modern (to 1918), contemporary; boundaries vary by historiographical school.

Historiography: Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, and Ion Neculce as chroniclers; Nicolae Iorga and Constantin C. Giurescu as modern historians.

Pitfalls: anachronism, presentism, confusing fact with opinion, and using a single source without corroboration.

Primary source: produced at the time of the event; secondary source: interprets primary sources later.

External criticism: authenticity, date, authorship, provenance; internal criticism: credibility, bias, meaning.

Century calculation: add 1 to the first two digits (1453 → 15th century; 1901 → 20th century).

Map scale: large scale (1:10,000) = small area, more detail; small scale (1:1,000,000) = large area, less detail.

Key dates: 106, 1330, 1453, 1600, 1859, 1877–1878, 1918, 1940, 1947, 1989, 2007.

Concepts: sovereignty, suzerainty, autonomy, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, nationalism, totalitarianism.

Bias: identify author, date, audience, and purpose before using a source as evidence.

Anachronism: judging past events by present-day standards; avoid it in source analysis.

Written sources: chronicles, charters, laws, letters, memoirs, treaties; material sources: coins, weapons, buildings, tools.

Oral sources: folklore, songs, interviews; audiovisual sources: photographs, films, recordings.

Criticism: provenance, authenticity, date, authorship, purpose, audience, bias, corroboration.

Chronology: BC/AD, no year 0, 'circa' for approximate dates, Julian versus Gregorian calendars.

Cartography: title, legend, scale, orientation, grid; historical maps must be dated to a specific year.

Concepts: nation, nationalism, state, sovereignty, autonomy, suzerainty, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, totalitarianism, modernization.

Periodization: Antiquity, Middle Ages, early modern, modern (to 1918), contemporary; boundaries vary by school.

Historiography: Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Ion Neculce; Nicolae Iorga, Constantin C. Giurescu.

Pitfalls: anachronism, presentism, fact versus opinion, single-source reliance.

Primary versus secondary: a 1400 charter is primary; a 2005 monograph about it is secondary.

External criticism: authenticity, date, authorship, provenance; internal criticism: credibility, bias, meaning.

Century rule: add 1 to the first two digits (1453 → 15th century; 1900 → 19th century).

Map scale: 1:25,000 shows more detail over a smaller area than 1:1,000,000.

Chronology anchors: 106, 1453, 1918, 1947, 1989, 2007.

Concept pairings: suzerainty versus sovereignty; autonomy versus independence.

Bias check: author, date, audience, purpose before using a source as evidence.

Anachronism: judging the past by present standards; avoid it in analysis.

Source types: written, material, oral, audiovisual; each type has its own evidential value.

Criticism steps: provenance, authenticity, date, authorship, purpose, audience, bias, corroboration.

Chronology: BC counts down to 1 BC, AD counts up from 1 AD; no year 0; 'circa' marks approximate dates.

Cartography: read title, legend, scale, orientation, grid; date historical maps to a specific year.

Concepts: nation, nationalism, state, sovereignty, autonomy, suzerainty, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, totalitarianism, modernization.

Periodization: Antiquity, Middle Ages, early modern, modern (to 1918), contemporary; boundaries vary by school.

Historiography: Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Ion Neculce; Nicolae Iorga, Constantin C. Giurescu.

Pitfalls: anachronism, presentism, fact versus opinion, single-source reliance.

Primary source: produced at the time of the event; secondary source: interprets primary sources later.

External criticism: authenticity, date, authorship, provenance; internal criticism: credibility, bias, meaning.

Century calculation: add 1 to the first two digits (1453 → 15th century; 1901 → 20th century).

Map scale: large scale (1:10,000) = small area, more detail; small scale (1:1,000,000) = large area, less detail.

Key dates: 106, 1330, 1453, 1600, 1859, 1877–1878, 1918, 1940, 1947, 1989, 2007.

Concepts: sovereignty, suzerainty, autonomy, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, nationalism, totalitarianism.

Bias: identify author, date, audience, and purpose before using a source as evidence.

Anachronism: judging past events by present-day standards; avoid it in source analysis.

Written sources: chronicles, charters, laws, letters, memoirs, treaties; material sources: coins, weapons, buildings, tools.

Oral sources: folklore, songs, interviews; audiovisual sources: photographs, films, recordings.

Criticism: provenance, authenticity, date, authorship, purpose, audience, bias, corroboration.

Chronology: BC/AD, no year 0, 'circa' for approximate dates, Julian versus Gregorian calendars.

Cartography: title, legend, scale, orientation, grid; historical maps must be dated to a specific year.

Concepts: nation, nationalism, state, sovereignty, autonomy, suzerainty, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, totalitarianism, modernization.

Periodization: Antiquity, Middle Ages, early modern, modern (to 1918), contemporary; boundaries vary by school.

Historiography: Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Ion Neculce; Nicolae Iorga, Constantin C. Giurescu.

Pitfalls: anachronism, presentism, fact versus opinion, single-source reliance.

Primary versus secondary: a 1400 charter is primary; a 2005 monograph about it is secondary.

External criticism: authenticity, date, authorship, provenance; internal criticism: credibility, bias, meaning.

Century rule: add 1 to the first two digits (1453 → 15th century; 1900 → 19th century).

Map scale: 1:25,000 shows more detail over a smaller area than 1:1,000,000.

Chronology anchors: 106, 1453, 1918, 1947, 1989, 2007.

Concept pairings: suzerainty versus sovereignty; autonomy versus independence.

Bias check: author, date, audience, purpose before using a source as evidence.

Anachronism: judging the past by present standards; avoid it in analysis.

Source types: written, material, oral, audiovisual; each type has its own evidential value.

Criticism steps: provenance, authenticity, date, authorship, purpose, audience, bias, corroboration.

Chronology: BC counts down to 1 BC, AD counts up from 1 AD; no year 0; 'circa' marks approximate dates.

Cartography: read title, legend, scale, orientation, grid; date historical maps to a specific year.

Concepts: nation, nationalism, state, sovereignty, autonomy, suzerainty, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, totalitarianism, modernization.

Periodization: Antiquity, Middle Ages, early modern, modern (to 1918), contemporary; boundaries vary by school.

Historiography: Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Ion Neculce; Nicolae Iorga, Constantin C. Giurescu.

Pitfalls: anachronism, presentism, fact versus opinion, single-source reliance.

Primary source: produced at the time of the event; secondary source: interprets primary sources later.

External criticism: authenticity, date, authorship, provenance; internal criticism: credibility, bias, meaning.

Century calculation: add 1 to the first two digits (1453 → 15th century; 1901 → 20th century).

Map scale: large scale (1:10,000) = small area, more detail; small scale (1:1,000,000) = large area, less detail.

Key dates: 106, 1330, 1453, 1600, 1859, 1877–1878, 1918, 1940, 1947, 1989, 2007.

Concepts: sovereignty, suzerainty, autonomy, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, nationalism, totalitarianism.

Bias: identify author, date, audience, and purpose before using a source as evidence.

Anachronism: judging past events by present-day standards; avoid it in source analysis.

Written sources: chronicles, charters, laws, letters, memoirs, treaties; material sources: coins, weapons, buildings, tools.

Oral sources: folklore, songs, interviews; audiovisual sources: photographs, films, recordings.

Criticism: provenance, authenticity, date, authorship, purpose, audience, bias, corroboration.

Chronology: BC/AD, no year 0, 'circa' for approximate dates, Julian versus Gregorian calendars.

Cartography: title, legend, scale, orientation, grid; historical maps must be dated to a specific year.

Concepts: nation, nationalism, state, sovereignty, autonomy, suzerainty, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, totalitarianism, modernization.

Periodization: Antiquity, Middle Ages, early modern, modern (to 1918), contemporary; boundaries vary by school.

Historiography: Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Ion Neculce; Nicolae Iorga, Constantin C. Giurescu.

Pitfalls: anachronism, presentism, fact versus opinion, single-source reliance.

Primary versus secondary: a 1400 charter is primary; a 2005 monograph about it is secondary.

External criticism: authenticity, date, authorship, provenance; internal criticism: credibility, bias, meaning.

Century rule: add 1 to the first two digits (1453 → 15th century; 1900 → 19th century).

Map scale: 1:25,000 shows more detail over a smaller area than 1:1,000,000.

Chronology anchors: 106, 1453, 1918, 1947, 1989, 2007.

Concept pairings: suzerainty versus sovereignty; autonomy versus independence.

Bias check: author, date, audience, purpose before using a source as evidence.

Anachronism: judging the past by present standards; avoid it in analysis.

Source types: written, material, oral, audiovisual; each type has its own evidential value.

Criticism steps: provenance, authenticity, date, authorship, purpose, audience, bias, corroboration.

Chronology: BC counts down to 1 BC, AD counts up from 1 AD; no year 0; 'circa' marks approximate dates.

Cartography: read title, legend, scale, orientation, grid; date historical maps to a specific year.

Concepts: nation, nationalism, state, sovereignty, autonomy, suzerainty, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, totalitarianism, modernization.

Periodization: Antiquity, Middle Ages, early modern, modern (to 1918), contemporary; boundaries vary by school.

Historiography: Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Ion Neculce; Nicolae Iorga, Constantin C. Giurescu.

Pitfalls: anachronism, presentism, fact versus opinion, single-source reliance.

Primary source: produced at the time of the event; secondary source: interprets primary sources later.

External criticism: authenticity, date, authorship, provenance; internal criticism: credibility, bias, meaning.

Century calculation: add 1 to the first two digits (1453 → 15th century; 1901 → 20th century).

Map scale: large scale (1:10,000) = small area, more detail; small scale (1:1,000,000) = large area, less detail.

Key dates: 106, 1330, 1453, 1600, 1859, 1877–1878, 1918, 1940, 1947, 1989, 2007.

Concepts: sovereignty, suzerainty, autonomy, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, nationalism, totalitarianism.

Bias: identify author, date, audience, and purpose before using a source as evidence.

Anachronism: judging past events by present-day standards; avoid it in source analysis.

Written sources: chronicles, charters, laws, letters, memoirs, treaties; material sources: coins, weapons, buildings, tools.

Oral sources: folklore, songs, interviews; audiovisual sources: photographs, films, recordings.

Criticism: provenance, authenticity, date, authorship, purpose, audience, bias, corroboration.

Chronology: BC/AD, no year 0, 'circa' for approximate dates, Julian versus Gregorian calendars.

Cartography: title, legend, scale, orientation, grid; historical maps must be dated to a specific year.

Concepts: nation, nationalism, state, sovereignty, autonomy, suzerainty, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, totalitarianism, modernization.

Periodization: Antiquity, Middle Ages, early modern, modern (to 1918), contemporary; boundaries vary by school.

Historiography: Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Ion Neculce; Nicolae Iorga, Constantin C. Giurescu.

Pitfalls: anachronism, presentism, fact versus opinion, single-source reliance.

Primary versus secondary: a 1400 charter is primary; a 2005 monograph about it is secondary.

External criticism: authenticity, date, authorship, provenance; internal criticism: credibility, bias, meaning.

Century rule: add 1 to the first two digits (1453 → 15th century; 1900 → 19th century).

Map scale: 1:25,000 shows more detail over a smaller area than 1:1,000,000.

Chronology anchors: 106, 1453, 1918, 1947, 1989, 2007.

Concept pairings: suzerainty versus sovereignty; autonomy versus independence.

Bias check: author, date, audience, purpose before using a source as evidence.

Anachronism: judging the past by present standards; avoid it in analysis.

Source types: written, material, oral, audiovisual; each type has its own evidential value.

Criticism steps: provenance, authenticity, date, authorship, purpose, audience, bias, corroboration.

Chronology: BC counts down to 1 BC, AD counts up from 1 AD; no year 0; 'circa' marks approximate dates.

Cartography: read title, legend, scale, orientation, grid; date historical maps to a specific year.

Concepts: nation, nationalism, state, sovereignty, autonomy, suzerainty, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, totalitarianism, modernization.

Periodization: Antiquity, Middle Ages, early modern, modern (to 1918), contemporary; boundaries vary by school.

Historiography: Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Ion Neculce; Nicolae Iorga, Constantin C. Giurescu.

Pitfalls: anachronism, presentism, fact versus opinion, single-source reliance.

Primary source: produced at the time of the event; secondary source: interprets primary sources later.

External criticism: authenticity, date, authorship, provenance; internal criticism: credibility, bias, meaning.

Century calculation: add 1 to the first two digits (1453 → 15th century; 1901 → 20th century).

Map scale: large scale (1:10,000) = small area, more detail; small scale (1:1,000,000) = large area, less detail.

Key dates: 106, 1330, 1453, 1600, 1859, 1877–1878, 1918, 1940, 1947, 1989, 2007.

Concepts: sovereignty, suzerainty, autonomy, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, nationalism, totalitarianism.

Bias: identify author, date, audience, and purpose before using a source as evidence.

Anachronism: judging past events by present-day standards; avoid it in source analysis.

Written sources: chronicles, charters, laws, letters, memoirs, treaties; material sources: coins, weapons, buildings, tools.

Oral sources: folklore, songs, interviews; audiovisual sources: photographs, films, recordings.

Criticism: provenance, authenticity, date, authorship, purpose, audience, bias, corroboration.

Chronology: BC/AD, no year 0, 'circa' for approximate dates, Julian versus Gregorian calendars.

Cartography: title, legend, scale, orientation, grid; historical maps must be dated to a specific year.

Concepts: nation, nationalism, state, sovereignty, autonomy, suzerainty, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, totalitarianism, modernization.

Periodization: Antiquity, Middle Ages, early modern, modern (to 1918), contemporary; boundaries vary by school.

Historiography: Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Ion Neculce; Nicolae Iorga, Constantin C. Giurescu.

Pitfalls: anachronism, presentism, fact versus opinion, single-source reliance.

Primary versus secondary: a 1400 charter is primary; a 2005 monograph about it is secondary.

External criticism: authenticity, date, authorship, provenance; internal criticism: credibility, bias, meaning.

Century rule: add 1 to the first two digits (1453 → 15th century; 1900 → 19th century).

Map scale: 1:25,000 shows more detail over a smaller area than 1:1,000,000.

Chronology anchors: 106, 1453, 1918, 1947, 1989, 2007.

Concept pairings: suzerainty versus sovereignty; autonomy versus independence.

Bias check: author, date, audience, purpose before using a source as evidence.

Anachronism: judging the past by present standards; avoid it in analysis.

Source types: written, material, oral, audiovisual; each type has its own evidential value.

Criticism steps: provenance, authenticity, date, authorship, purpose, audience, bias, corroboration.

Chronology: BC counts down to 1 BC, AD counts up from 1 AD; no year 0; 'circa' marks approximate dates.

Cartography: read title, legend, scale, orientation, grid; date historical maps to a specific year.

Concepts: nation, nationalism, state, sovereignty, autonomy, suzerainty, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, totalitarianism, modernization.

Periodization: Antiquity, Middle Ages, early modern, modern (to 1918), contemporary; boundaries vary by school.

Historiography: Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Ion Neculce; Nicolae Iorga, Constantin C. Giurescu.

Pitfalls: anachronism, presentism, fact versus opinion, single-source reliance.

Primary source: produced at the time of the event; secondary source: interprets primary sources later.

External criticism: authenticity, date, authorship, provenance; internal criticism: credibility, bias, meaning.

Century calculation: add 1 to the first two digits (1453 → 15th century; 1901 → 20th century).

Map scale: large scale (1:10,000) = small area, more detail; small scale (1:1,000,000) = large area, less detail.

Key dates: 106, 1330, 1453, 1600, 1859, 1877–1878, 1918, 1940, 1947, 1989, 2007.

Concepts: sovereignty, suzerainty, autonomy, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, nationalism, totalitarianism.

Bias: identify author, date, audience, and purpose before using a source as evidence.

Anachronism: judging past events by present-day standards; avoid it in source analysis.

Written sources: chronicles, charters, laws, letters, memoirs, treaties; material sources: coins, weapons, buildings, tools.

Oral sources: folklore, songs, interviews; audiovisual sources: photographs, films, recordings.

Criticism: provenance, authenticity, date, authorship, purpose, audience, bias, corroboration.

Chronology: BC/AD, no year 0, 'circa' for approximate dates, Julian versus Gregorian calendars.

Cartography: title, legend, scale, orientation, grid; historical maps must be dated to a specific year.

Concepts: nation, nationalism, state, sovereignty, autonomy, suzerainty, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, totalitarianism, modernization.

Periodization: Antiquity, Middle Ages, early modern, modern (to 1918), contemporary; boundaries vary by school.

Historiography: Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Ion Neculce; Nicolae Iorga, Constantin C. Giurescu.

Pitfalls: anachronism, presentism, fact versus opinion, single-source reliance.

Primary versus secondary: a 1400 charter is primary; a 2005 monograph about it is secondary.

External criticism: authenticity, date, authorship, provenance; internal criticism: credibility, bias, meaning.

Century rule: add 1 to the first two digits (1453 → 15th century; 1900 → 19th century).

Map scale: 1:25,000 shows more detail over a smaller area than 1:1,000,000.

Chronology anchors: 106, 1453, 1918, 1947, 1989, 2007.

Concept pairings: suzerainty versus sovereignty; autonomy versus independence.

Bias check: author, date, audience, purpose before using a source as evidence.

Anachronism: judging the past by present standards; avoid it in analysis.

Source types: written, material, oral, audiovisual; each type has its own evidential value.

Criticism steps: provenance, authenticity, date, authorship, purpose, audience, bias, corroboration.

Chronology: BC counts down to 1 BC, AD counts up from 1 AD; no year 0; 'circa' marks approximate dates.

Cartography: read title, legend, scale, orientation, grid; date historical maps to a specific year.

Concepts: nation, nationalism, state, sovereignty, autonomy, suzerainty, vassalage, absolutism, constitutional monarchy, totalitarianism, modernization.

Periodization: Antiquity, Middle Ages, early modern, modern (to 1918), contemporary; boundaries vary by school.

Historiography: Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Ion Neculce; Nicolae Iorga, Constantin C. Giurescu.

Pitfalls: anachronism, presentism, fact versus opinion, single-source reliance.