NZ Scholarship Psychology flashcards

33 cards. Read the term and the definition here. The deck at the top of this page is optional.

Confounding variable

An extraneous variable that varies systematically with the independent variable, so any observed effect on the dependent variable cannot be attributed to the independent variable alone.

Demand characteristics

Cues in a study that let participants infer the hypothesis and alter their behaviour, threatening internal validity; reduced by blinding, unobtrusive measures or deception with debriefing.

Ecological validity

The extent to which findings generalise to real-world settings and everyday behaviour. High laboratory control often lowers ecological validity without any loss of internal validity.

Random assignment

Allocating participants to conditions by chance, which spreads individual differences evenly across groups and supports causal inference. It differs from random sampling, which concerns generalisability to a population.

Effect size (Cohen's d)

A standardised measure of the difference between two means: d of 0.2 is conventionally small, 0.5 medium and 0.8 large. It is independent of sample size.

p-value

The probability of obtaining data at least as extreme as those observed if the null hypothesis is true. It is not the probability that the null hypothesis is true.

Type I and Type II error

A Type I error is rejecting a true null hypothesis, with probability alpha; a Type II error is failing to reject a false null hypothesis, with probability beta. Power equals 1 minus beta.

Counterbalancing

Varying the order of conditions across participants in a repeated-measures design so that order and practice effects are distributed evenly and do not systematically bias one condition.

Thematic analysis

A qualitative method for identifying, analysing and reporting patterns across a dataset; Braun and Clarke describe six phases from data familiarisation through coding to writing up.

Kaupapa Māori research

A Māori-led approach grounded in mātauranga Māori, tikanga and Māori aspirations, positioning Māori as researchers and decision-makers rather than as objects of external study.

Systematic desensitisation

Wolpe's behaviour therapy in which a client learns relaxation and progresses gradually through a fear hierarchy, pairing relaxation with feared stimuli so that the anxiety response is extinguished.

Negative reinforcement

Removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus that increases the likelihood of the preceding behaviour. It strengthens behaviour, unlike punishment, which decreases the behaviour it follows.

Self-efficacy (Bandura)

A person's belief in their capability to perform the actions needed to reach a given outcome, shaped by mastery experiences, vicarious modelling, social persuasion and physiological states.

Cognitive restructuring

A CBT technique in which clients identify distorted automatic thoughts, examine the supporting evidence and substitute more accurate appraisals, thereby reducing emotional distress and avoidance.

Internal working model

Bowlby's term for a mental representation of self and others built from early caregiver interactions, which guides expectations, affect and behaviour in later relationships.

Zone of proximal development

Vygotsky's term for the gap between what a learner can do unaided and what they can do with guidance; scaffolding is most effective when targeted within this zone.

Misinformation effect

Loftus's finding that misleading post-event information can alter memory reports, with question wording shifting recalled details such as vehicle speed or the presence of objects.

Diathesis-stress model

The proposal that psychological disorders emerge when a pre-existing vulnerability, such as genetic or temperamental risk, interacts with environmental stressors; neither factor alone is sufficient.

Te Whare Tapa Whā

Sir Mason Durie's Māori model of health as four walls: taha wairua, taha hinengaro, taha tinana and taha whānau. Wellbeing requires all four to be strong.

Unconditional positive regard

Rogers's core therapeutic condition of accepting the client without judgement or conditions of worth, allowing self-actualising tendencies and a more congruent self-concept to develop.

Bystander effect

Darley and Latané's finding that the likelihood of helping falls as the number of bystanders rises, explained by diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance.

Informed consent

Voluntary agreement given after disclosure of purpose, procedures, risks and the right to withdraw; it requires capacity and understanding, with guardian consent plus assent for minors.

Debriefing

Post-study explanation of the true aims and methods, especially after deception, during which participants may ask questions, raise concerns and request withdrawal of their data.

Confidentiality

The obligation not to disclose identifying information. Limits include serious risk of harm, legal requirement and child protection concerns, and should be stated to participants in advance.

Non-maleficence

The ethical principle of avoiding harm: in research and practice it requires identifying risks of distress and ensuring those risks are minimised and proportionate to expected benefits.

Dual relationship

When a psychologist holds another significant role with a client, such as teacher, employer or friend, creating a power imbalance and risk of impaired judgement.

Three Rs (animal ethics)

Replacement of animal subjects with alternatives where possible, reduction of animal numbers to the minimum required, and refinement of procedures to minimise pain and distress.

Cultural safety

Irihapeti Ramsden's concept requiring practitioners to examine their own culture and power, and to deliver care that the recipient experiences as safe and respectful.

Māori data sovereignty

The principle that data about Māori should be governed under Māori control and tikanga; Te Mana Raraunga sets expectations for collection, storage, access and use.

HARKing

Hypothesising After the Results are Known: presenting post-hoc findings as if they were predicted in advance, which inflates false-positive rates and misrepresents theory testing.

Duty to warn

A limited exception to confidentiality, arising from Tarasoff, permitting disclosure where a client poses a serious threat to an identifiable person, usually after protective steps.

Fabrication and falsification

Forms of research misconduct: fabrication is inventing data or results, falsification is manipulating, altering or omitting data. Both differ from plagiarism and corrupt the evidential base.

Assent

A minor's or cognitively impaired person's agreement to participate, sought in addition to guardian or substitute consent, expressed in language and form they can understand.