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NZ Scholarship Psychology study materials
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NZ Scholarship Psychology practice questions

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Question 1Psychological inquiry and research methods

A researcher investigating test anxiety defines it as 'score on the Test Anxiety Inventory immediately before an exam'. In psychological inquiry, this is best described as:

  1. a confounding variable introduced by the inventory
  2. a theoretical construct with no measurable referent
  3. an operational definition of the variable Correct answer.
  4. a demand characteristic of the testing situation

Explanation

An operational definition specifies how a construct is measured in a particular study. Defining test anxiety as a score on a named inventory makes the variable observable and quantifiable, which supports replication and clearer interpretation.

Question 2Psychological inquiry and research methods

In a randomised controlled trial of a new mindfulness programme for stress, random allocation of participants to conditions primarily helps to:

  1. ensure the sample is representative of the wider population
  2. spread potential confounders evenly across groups Correct answer.
  3. eliminate the possibility of experimenter bias
  4. guarantee that the intervention is delivered with fidelity

Explanation

Random allocation concerns how participants are assigned to conditions, not how they are selected. It reduces systematic differences between groups by distributing potential confounders, although it does not guarantee equivalence in every sample.

Question 3Psychological inquiry and research methods

Which ethical safeguard is most directly intended to restore participants' understanding and remove any residual effects after a study that used mild deception?

  1. obtaining informed consent before participation
  2. maintaining confidentiality of the data
  3. debriefing participants after the study Correct answer.
  4. using a matched-pairs design

Explanation

Debriefing occurs after participation and can reveal the true purpose, correct misconceptions and address any distress. Informed consent happens before the study and cannot fully disclose a deception that is essential to the design.

Question 4Psychological inquiry and research methods

A researcher finds that students who attend optional study-skills workshops score higher on a later exam than students who do not attend. Which interpretation is most defensible?

  1. Exam score is a confounding variable in this design.
  2. Prior motivation may confound attendance and scores. Correct answer.
  3. Workshop attendance caused the higher exam scores.
  4. The workshop was ineffective because attendance was optional.

Explanation

Students who choose to attend optional workshops may already differ in motivation, prior achievement or study habits. These pre-existing differences could influence exam scores, so the comparison does not isolate the workshop's effect.

Question 5Psychological inquiry and research methods

A large survey reports a positive correlation (r = 0.42) between hours of social media use and self-reported anxiety in adolescents. Which conclusion is best supported?

  1. Social media use causes anxiety because the correlation is positive.
  2. The correlation is too weak to be meaningful in psychological research.
  3. Anxiety causes adolescents to use more social media, which proves reverse causation.
  4. Social media use is associated with anxiety, but causality is unproven. Correct answer.

Explanation

A correlation quantifies the direction and strength of an association without manipulating variables. Alternative explanations include reverse causation and third variables such as sleep or peer stress, so causal claims require stronger designs.

Question 6Psychological inquiry and research methods

A researcher wants a sample of New Zealand secondary school students that reflects the ethnic and socioeconomic diversity of the national student population. Which sampling approach is best suited to this aim?

  1. a snowball sample starting with the researcher's acquaintances
  2. a convenience sample of students from one urban school
  3. a stratified random sample using school decile and ethnicity Correct answer.
  4. a volunteer sample recruited through social media

Explanation

Stratified random sampling divides the population into relevant strata and then randomly samples within them. This improves representativeness on the chosen characteristics, whereas volunteer, convenience and snowball samples can introduce selection bias.

Question 7Psychological inquiry and research methods

A memory study asks participants to recall lists of unrelated words while seated alone in a quiet laboratory. A critic argues that the findings may have low ecological validity. The critic's concern is that:

  1. the study lacks internal validity because it has no control group
  2. the sample size is too small to support statistical inference
  3. the lab task may not resemble everyday memory demands Correct answer.
  4. the measure has poor test–retest reliability across sessions

Explanation

Ecological validity concerns how well findings generalise to real-world settings and tasks. A quiet lab with arbitrary word lists may not capture the conditions under which everyday memory is used, even if the design is internally sound.

Question 8Psychological inquiry and research methods

Two interventions for reducing test anxiety are compared. Intervention A produces a statistically significant improvement (p = .04) with a small effect size; Intervention B produces a non-significant improvement (p = .08) with a large effect size. Which interpretation is most appropriate?

  1. Intervention A is clearly more effective because it reached significance.
  2. Neither result is interpretable because p values above .05 are meaningless.
  3. Significance and practical importance differ, so effect size and confidence intervals matter. Correct answer.
  4. Intervention B should be preferred because a larger effect size always implies greater practical importance.

Explanation

A p value indicates the probability of the observed result under a null hypothesis, not the size or importance of an effect. Effect sizes and confidence intervals provide information about magnitude and precision, which are relevant to practical decisions.

Question 9Psychological inquiry and research methods

A qualitative researcher studying teacher stress uses interviews, classroom observations and a reflective journal. Which claim best captures the methodological value of combining these sources?

  1. Using several methods guarantees that the researcher's interpretations are objective.
  2. Observations provide statistical generalisability to the wider teacher population.
  3. Triangulation can strengthen credibility by comparing multiple evidence sources. Correct answer.
  4. The journal removes the need to consider the researcher's influence on the data.

Explanation

Triangulation involves comparing findings across methods, sources or analysts to test interpretations and increase credibility. It does not eliminate researcher influence or provide statistical generalisation, which are different aims from those of most qualitative inquiry.

Question 10Psychological inquiry and research methods

In a study of helping behaviour, cues in the procedure allow participants to infer the expected result, and they behave in line with that expectation. This threat is best described as:

  1. experimenter expectancy effect
  2. social desirability bias
  3. demand characteristics Correct answer.
  4. selection bias

Explanation

Demand characteristics are cues in a study that suggest the expected response, leading participants to conform to or resist that expectation. Social desirability concerns presenting oneself favourably, which can overlap but is not defined by inferring the hypothesis.

Question 11Psychological inquiry and research methods

In a repeated-measures experiment, participants complete both a stressful mental arithmetic task and a relaxing music task. The researcher alternates the order in which the two tasks are presented across participants. Which methodological problem is this procedure designed to control?

  1. Demand characteristics arising from the researcher's expectations
  2. Measurement error caused by unreliable instruments
  3. Order effects such as practice or fatigue Correct answer.
  4. Selection bias produced by non-random allocation

Explanation

Counterbalancing varies the order of conditions so that practice, fatigue, or boredom do not consistently favour one condition over another in a repeated-measures design. It addresses order effects, not the accuracy of the measures or the way participants were assigned. Without counterbalancing, a difference between conditions could simply reflect the sequence in which tasks were completed.

Question 12Psychological inquiry and research methods

A team develops a new questionnaire intended to measure 'academic self-efficacy'. They ask five educational psychologists to judge whether the items represent all the key facets of the construct and whether irrelevant content has been included. Which form of validity are they primarily evaluating?

  1. Content validity Correct answer.
  2. Inter-rater reliability
  3. Test-retest reliability
  4. Predictive validity

Explanation

Content validity concerns whether test items adequately cover the full domain of the construct and exclude irrelevant material. Expert judgement of item relevance and coverage is the standard way to assess it. Predictive validity instead concerns how well scores forecast a future outcome, while reliability concerns consistency rather than coverage.

Question 13Psychological inquiry and research methods

A researcher records the annual income of 200 families in a suburb. A small number of families report extremely high incomes. Which measure of central tendency best summarises the typical income in this sample?

  1. The median, because it is resistant to extreme scores Correct answer.
  2. The mean, because it uses every score in the distribution
  3. The range, because it captures the full spread of incomes
  4. The standard deviation, because it describes dispersion

Explanation

Income distributions are typically positively skewed, and extreme high scores pull the mean upward. The median identifies the middle score and is therefore less distorted by outliers, making it a better summary of the typical value. Standard deviation and range describe dispersion rather than central tendency.

Question 14Psychological inquiry and research methods

A depression scale yields very similar total scores when the same clients complete it on two occasions one week apart. However, its scores correlate only weakly with structured clinical interviews for depression. Which conclusion is most defensible?

  1. The scale has good content validity but poor criterion validity.
  2. The scale has good convergent validity but poor test-retest reliability.
  3. The scale has good test-retest reliability but limited convergent validity. Correct answer.
  4. The scale has good internal consistency but poor test-retest reliability.

Explanation

Stable scores across two administrations indicate test-retest reliability, because the measure is consistent over a short interval. A weak association with structured clinical interviews, which should tap the same construct, indicates limited convergent validity. Reliability and validity are separate properties: consistency does not guarantee that the scale measures what it claims to measure.

Question 15Psychological inquiry and research methods

A researcher compares exam performance of students taught by two methods. Method A is used in morning classes and Method B in afternoon classes. Students in morning classes also report sleeping longer the night before. Which statement best describes the methodological issue?

  1. Sleep duration is a mediator because it explains how teaching method affects performance.
  2. Sleep duration is a dependent variable because it is measured by the researcher.
  3. Sleep duration is a confounding variable because it varies systematically with the teaching method. Correct answer.
  4. Sleep duration is a demand characteristic because students infer the hypothesis.

Explanation

A confound is a variable that is associated with the independent variable and may also affect the dependent variable, providing an alternative explanation for the result. Because sleep differs systematically between the morning and afternoon classes, any exam difference could be due to sleep rather than teaching method. A mediator would be a mechanism through which the teaching method causes performance, which is not established here.

Question 16Psychological inquiry and research methods

A non-Māori researcher plans a study of stress and coping among Māori secondary school students in a provincial town. Which action best reflects a culturally responsive research approach?

  1. Consulting local Māori communities and whānau early to shape the research questions and procedures Correct answer.
  2. Avoiding ethnicity data altogether to prevent stigmatising comparisons
  3. Translating the consent forms into te reo Māori without changing any other aspect of the design
  4. Recruiting Māori students only after the school principal gives consent on their behalf

Explanation

Culturally responsive research with Māori communities typically involves early partnership and consultation so that the research questions, methods, and dissemination reflect community priorities and values. Consultation is more than surface adaptation: it influences the design itself. Obtaining consent from a principal instead of students and whānau, or merely translating documents, does not constitute meaningful partnership.

Question 17Psychological inquiry and research methods

Two observers independently code video recordings of children's playground aggression using a behavioural checklist. Their scores for the same children are compared. Which statistic or procedure most directly assesses the consistency between the two observers?

  1. Inter-rater reliability, such as Cohen's kappa Correct answer.
  2. Cronbach's alpha for the checklist items within one observer's ratings
  3. A test-retest correlation of each observer's scores across two weeks
  4. A paired-samples t-test comparing the observers' mean scores

Explanation

Inter-rater reliability quantifies the degree of agreement between two or more observers rating the same behaviour. Cohen's kappa is appropriate for categorical coding because it corrects for agreement expected by chance. A non-significant t-test would only show that the observers' average ratings do not differ, not that they agree on individual children.

Question 18Psychological inquiry and research methods

A meta-analysis combines 40 published studies and finds a moderate overall effect. The analyst notes that small studies with null results may be less likely to appear in the published literature. Which concept is being described?

  1. The placebo effect, a form of response bias
  2. The file-drawer problem, a form of publication bias Correct answer.
  3. The ecological fallacy, a form of sampling error
  4. The Hawthorne effect, a form of reactivity

Explanation

The file-drawer problem refers to the tendency for studies with non-significant results to remain unpublished, which can bias a meta-analysis toward overestimating an effect. Because small null studies are especially likely to be missing, the combined effect size may be inflated. Analysts use funnel plots and trim-and-fill methods to assess this bias.

Question 19Psychological inquiry and research methods

A researcher tests whether a new therapy reduces anxiety. The study has low statistical power. The result is non-significant (p = .21), and the researcher concludes that the therapy has no effect. Which interpretation is most accurate?

  1. A Type I error has probably occurred because the p value exceeds .05.
  2. The conclusion is sound because a non-significant result proves the null hypothesis is true.
  3. The low power guarantees that the effect size is small in the population.
  4. The study may have committed a Type II error, so a non-significant result does not prove the therapy has no effect. Correct answer.

Explanation

Low statistical power increases the risk of a Type II error: failing to detect a real effect. A non-significant result therefore does not establish that the null hypothesis is true; it may simply reflect insufficient sensitivity. Type I error would involve rejecting a true null hypothesis, which did not happen here.

Question 20Psychological inquiry and research methods

A qualitative researcher interviewing former refugees about employment experiences keeps a journal documenting her own assumptions and how her identity may shape the interview. Which concept does this practice most directly illustrate?

  1. Reflexivity, where the researcher examines their own influence on the research process Correct answer.
  2. Generalisability, where findings are extended to the wider population
  3. Standardisation, where every participant receives identical procedures
  4. Triangulation, where multiple data sources are used to corroborate findings

Explanation

Reflexivity is the researcher's critical examination of their own assumptions, position, and influence on the research process and interpretations. Keeping a journal makes those influences visible and supports transparency in qualitative analysis. Triangulation instead involves combining multiple methods, sources, or analysts to strengthen findings.

Question 21Psychological inquiry and research methods

A researcher records each participant's reaction time in milliseconds and concludes that a participant with a score of 600 ms took twice as long as a participant with a score of 300 ms. Which level of measurement does reaction time represent in this example?

  1. Nominal
  2. Ratio Correct answer.
  3. Interval
  4. Ordinal

Explanation

Reaction time is measured on a ratio scale because it has equal intervals and a true zero, so ratio statements such as 'twice as long' are meaningful. Interval scales have equal intervals but no true zero; ordinal scales rank only; nominal scales label categories.

Question 22Psychological inquiry and research methods

In an experiment examining whether caffeine consumption affects sustained attention, the researcher assigns participants to receive either caffeine or a placebo and then measures attention-task accuracy. Which term describes the caffeine/placebo condition?

  1. Extraneous variable
  2. Confounding variable
  3. Independent variable Correct answer.
  4. Dependent variable

Explanation

The independent variable is the variable the experimenter manipulates, here the caffeine versus placebo condition. The dependent variable is the measured outcome, attention accuracy, while extraneous and confounding variables are uncontrolled influences.

Question 23Psychological inquiry and research methods

A researcher obtains a list of all Year 12 students in a region and uses a random number generator to select 200 of them for a survey. Which sampling procedure has been used?

  1. Stratified random sampling
  2. Quota sampling
  3. Simple random sampling Correct answer.
  4. Snowball sampling

Explanation

Simple random sampling gives every member of the sampling frame an equal chance of selection, which is what the random number generator procedure achieves. Stratified sampling divides the population first, quota sampling fills predetermined categories, and snowball sampling relies on referrals.

Question 24Psychological inquiry and research methods

A researcher observes cooperative play in a preschool using a checklist. On days when the centre director stands nearby, children's cooperation scores are consistently higher than on days when only the researcher is present. Which threat to validity best explains this pattern?

  1. Test-retest unreliability
  2. Sampling error
  3. Inter-rater disagreement
  4. Reactivity Correct answer.

Explanation

Reactivity occurs when participants change their behaviour because they know they are being observed. The director's presence is an additional social cue that alters the children's cooperation scores, so the measurement is influenced by the observation context.

Question 25Psychological inquiry and research methods

An intervention study reports no statistically significant difference between treatment and control groups, with a 95% confidence interval for the mean difference that ranges from -0.2 to 12.5 points. Which conclusion is most defensible?

  1. The intervention is proven to be effective.
  2. The effect size is exactly zero.
  3. The intervention is proven to have no effect.
  4. The result is inconclusive. Correct answer.

Explanation

A non-significant result does not prove the absence of an effect, especially when the confidence interval is wide. Because the interval includes values close to zero and values that could be practically important, the study is inconclusive and needs more precision.

Question 26Psychological inquiry and research methods

A survey asks adolescents to report how often they vape. The researcher suspects participants will underreport the behaviour. Which procedure is most likely to reduce this bias?

  1. Ask participants to sign their names on the questionnaire
  2. Assure participants of anonymity Correct answer.
  3. Increase the number of questions about vaping
  4. Have a teacher collect completed questionnaires in class

Explanation

Social desirability bias is reduced when participants believe their answers cannot be traced back to them. Anonymity lowers the perceived cost of reporting sensitive behaviour such as vaping, whereas signing names or teacher collection increases it.

Question 27Psychological inquiry and research methods

A researcher collects interview data, codes each transcript, compares new codes with codes from earlier interviews, and revises emerging categories as the study proceeds. This analytic strategy is most characteristic of which approach?

  1. Case study
  2. Discourse analysis
  3. Grounded theory Correct answer.
  4. Ethnography

Explanation

Grounded theory uses an iterative process of coding data, comparing new data with emerging categories, and revising categories as analysis proceeds. This constant comparison is central to building theory from the data rather than imposing a pre-existing framework.

Question 28Psychological inquiry and research methods

In a randomised trial of a new therapy, an assessor who knows each participant's group allocation rates their anxiety symptoms after treatment. The therapists follow a standard manual. Which bias is most directly introduced?

  1. Detection bias Correct answer.
  2. Selection bias
  3. Attrition bias
  4. Performance bias

Explanation

Detection bias arises when outcome assessors know group allocation and their ratings can be influenced by that knowledge. Even with a standard treatment manual, unblinded assessment can systematically distort the recorded symptom scores.

Question 29Psychological inquiry and research methods

A new 20-item scale measuring 'school belonging' has Cronbach's alpha = 0.92 and a two-week test-retest correlation of r = 0.48. Which interpretation is most defensible?

  1. High internal consistency, low temporal stability. Correct answer.
  2. The scale is invalid because alpha is too high.
  3. The scale is both reliable and valid for all purposes.
  4. The scale has low internal consistency but high temporal stability.

Explanation

Cronbach's alpha indexes internal consistency, which is high here, while test-retest correlation indexes stability over time, which is modest. High internal consistency does not establish validity, and the low retest value suggests the scores may fluctuate or the construct may be state-like.

Question 30Psychological inquiry and research methods

A researcher sums responses to a five-point Likert scale (strongly disagree to strongly agree) and analyses the total as interval data. Which criticism is most relevant?

  1. Likert scales always lack internal consistency.
  2. The response intervals may not be equal. Correct answer.
  3. Likert items are nominal, so they cannot be summed.
  4. The scale has no true zero, so it cannot be analysed statistically.

Explanation

Likert items are ordinal, so the psychological distance between adjacent response options is not guaranteed to be equal. Treating summed scores as interval data is common but requires justification, such as evidence that respondents interpret the scale evenly.

Question 31Psychological inquiry and research methods

A researcher claims a new 12-item scale measures 'empathy', but every item asks participants to name the emotion shown in a photographed face. The strongest criticism of this scale is that it lacks...

  1. Construct validity Correct answer.
  2. Internal consistency
  3. Inter-rater reliability
  4. Test–retest reliability

Explanation

Construct validity concerns whether an instrument actually captures the psychological attribute it claims to measure. Naming emotions in photographs taps emotion recognition, so scores cannot be read as a measure of empathy however consistent the items are. Reliability evidence would not repair this mismatch between concept and content.

Question 32Psychological inquiry and research methods

In a study of helping behaviour, participants are told the study concerns 'visual perception' and learn its true purpose only when it ends. What is the researcher ethically required to provide at the close of participation?

  1. A debriefing that explains the deception and its purpose Correct answer.
  2. Payment reflecting the time the participant spent
  3. An offer to delete the participant's data from the analysis
  4. A second consent form that repeats the original cover story

Explanation

Deception is acceptable only when it is necessary, carries minimal risk, and is corrected afterwards. Debriefing restores an accurate understanding of the study, explains why the cover story was used, and offers participants the chance to withdraw their data. Repeating the false account would prolong rather than resolve the deception.

Question 33Psychological inquiry and research methods

A researcher records each participant's birth position as 'only child', 'first-born', 'second-born' or 'later-born'. These categories constitute which level of measurement?

  1. Ratio
  2. Interval
  3. Ordinal Correct answer.
  4. Nominal

Explanation

The categories carry a meaningful rank order, since first-born precedes second-born, but the distances between them are neither equal nor quantifiable. That combination defines an ordinal variable. Interval and ratio scales require equal units, and a ratio scale also requires a true zero.

Question 34Psychological inquiry and research methods

Participants in a competition study are told that the researcher expects people to try harder when a peer is watching. Several later report that they guessed this aim and deliberately increased their effort while observed. The improvement most likely reflects...

  1. Regression to the mean
  2. Experimenter bias in scoring
  3. A floor effect
  4. Demand characteristics Correct answer.

Explanation

Demand characteristics are cues in the procedure that allow participants to infer the hypothesis and adjust their behaviour accordingly. Because participants reported changing their effort to match the stated expectation, the observed effect is confounded with participant expectancy. Experimenter bias would instead involve the researcher's own recording or scoring.

Question 35Psychological inquiry and research methods

A survey finds that adolescents who usually eat breakfast achieve higher grades than those who skip it, and the authors conclude that breakfast improves achievement. Which alternative explanation most seriously threatens that conclusion?

  1. Some adolescents may misreport what they ate
  2. Family advantage may raise both breakfast eating and grades Correct answer.
  3. Breakfast habits may shift across school terms
  4. Schools may keep grade records differently

Explanation

A third variable such as family socioeconomic advantage can increase both the likelihood of eating breakfast and academic attainment, generating a correlation in which breakfast plays no causal role. Without statistical adjustment or a design that isolates breakfast, the causal claim is unsupported. Random misreporting would weaken the association rather than manufacture it.

Question 36Psychological inquiry and research methods

An independent-samples t-test comparing two teaching methods returns p = .04. Which statement correctly interprets this value?

  1. If the null were true, a result this extreme would arise 4% of the time Correct answer.
  2. There is a 4% probability that the null hypothesis is true
  3. There is a 96% probability that the observed difference is genuine
  4. The effect is 4% as large as the largest effect the test could detect

Explanation

A p-value is the probability of obtaining data at least as extreme as those observed, calculated on the assumption that the null hypothesis is true. It is not the probability that the null is true, nor the probability that the difference is real. A small p-value indicates incompatibility with the null model rather than the size or practical importance of the effect.

Question 37Psychological inquiry and research methods

After analysing interview transcripts, a researcher sends each participant a summary of the themes, asks whether it fits their experience, and revises the themes where participants disagree. This procedure chiefly strengthens...

  1. Credibility Correct answer.
  2. Transferability
  3. Confirmability
  4. Dependability

Explanation

Returning interpretations to participants, often called member checking, tests whether the account fits their experience and so strengthens credibility, the qualitative counterpart of internal validity. Transferability concerns whether findings apply in other settings, while dependability and confirmability concern consistency over time and freedom from researcher bias respectively.

Question 38Psychological inquiry and research methods

A researcher interviews 14 members of a single urban youth group recruited through its leader, then claims the findings represent all New Zealand adolescents. The strongest criticism is that...

  1. The study has no control group against which to compare responses
  2. Fourteen participants are too few for qualitative analysis to be trustworthy
  3. The findings cannot be generalised to all New Zealand adolescents Correct answer.
  4. Recruiting through the leader makes the study unethical

Explanation

A small, locally recruited group cannot support a claim about the whole national population, so the central problem is external validity rather than sample size alone. Qualitative analysis can be rigorous with small, purposively chosen samples. Community leaders can assist recruitment provided participation is voluntary and confidentiality is protected.

Question 39Psychological inquiry and research methods

A researcher inspects the data after every ten participants and stops collecting when the group difference first reaches p < .05. If the null hypothesis is true, this practice mainly...

  1. Biases the effect size but leaves the error rate unchanged
  2. Raises the Type II error rate while holding alpha fixed
  3. Lowers statistical power by shrinking the final sample
  4. Inflates the Type I error rate above the stated 5% Correct answer.

Explanation

Repeatedly testing accumulating data and stopping at the first significant result is optional stopping. Each additional look carries its own chance of a false positive, so the overall Type I error rate rises well above the nominal alpha, even though the final sample is smaller than planned. A preregistered fixed sample size avoids this inflation.

Question 40Psychological inquiry and research methods

A study-skills programme improves exam results, and the researcher proposes that it works by increasing students' use of spaced retrieval practice. Which analysis directly tests this proposed process?

  1. A mediation analysis estimating the indirect effect through spaced practice Correct answer.
  2. A moderation analysis testing whether the programme effect varies by year level
  3. A factor analysis of the spaced-practice questionnaire items
  4. A paired-samples t-test comparing results before and after the programme

Explanation

A hypothesised causal pathway in which the programme changes a mediator that in turn changes the outcome is tested by mediation analysis, which estimates the indirect effect. Moderation asks whether the size of the effect depends on another variable such as year level. Neither factor analysis nor a pre–post t-test models the intervening mechanism.

Question 41Psychological inquiry and research methods

A researcher studying illegal online sports betting asks each participant to pass a recruitment link to two acquaintances who also bet online, and continues until the sample includes 40 people. Which sampling method is described?

  1. Systematic sampling
  2. Quota sampling
  3. Stratified random sampling
  4. Snowball sampling Correct answer.

Explanation

Snowball sampling relies on referral chains: existing participants nominate further people, which is useful for hidden or hard-to-reach populations. Stratified random and systematic sampling require a defined sampling frame and formal selection rules, while quota sampling fills predetermined categories without referrals.

Question 42Psychological inquiry and research methods

An interviewer removes participants' names from transcripts but quotes a participant who says she is 'the only female crane operator in a town of 3,000'. A reader can identify her. Which ethical principle is most directly breached?

  1. Debriefing
  2. Confidentiality Correct answer.
  3. Informed consent
  4. Deception

Explanation

Confidentiality requires that participants cannot be identified in reported data; removing names is insufficient when unique contextual details make someone recognisable. Informed consent concerns agreement to take part, debriefing follows participation or deception, and deception involves misleading participants about the study.

Question 43Psychological inquiry and research methods

In a study of adolescent wellbeing, the researcher defines 'physical activity' as the number of minutes per week recorded by a wrist accelerometer. In research-methods terms, this definition is best described as:

  1. A measure of inter-rater reliability
  2. A hypothesis about the relationship between activity and wellbeing
  3. A sampling frame for selecting adolescents
  4. An operational definition of the variable Correct answer.

Explanation

An operational definition states exactly how an abstract construct is measured in a study-here, physical activity is defined by accelerometer-recorded minutes per week. It is not a prediction, a list used to select participants, or a statistic for agreement between coders.

Question 44Psychological inquiry and research methods

A school compares a new online maths programme with usual teaching. One Year 9 class uses the programme and another does not, but the programme class already had higher maths scores before the study. Which threat to causal inference is most direct?

  1. Selection differences Correct answer.
  2. Demand characteristics
  3. Instrumentation drift
  4. Attrition

Explanation

Selection differences mean the groups differed before the programme began, so the higher prior maths scores offer a plausible alternative explanation for any post-test advantage. Instrumentation concerns measurement changes, demand characteristics concern participant expectations, and attrition concerns differential dropout.

Question 45Psychological inquiry and research methods

Two researchers independently code 120 forum posts for 'supportive language'. Cohen's kappa is .42. What is the most appropriate interpretation?

  1. Modest chance-corrected agreement, so coding reliability is questionable Correct answer.
  2. High internal consistency among the coded posts
  3. Near-perfect agreement, so the coding scheme is valid
  4. Strong test–retest reliability for the measure

Explanation

Cohen's kappa corrects observed agreement for chance; a value of .42 indicates only modest agreement, so the coding reliability is questionable and code definitions or training may need revision. Kappa does not establish validity, internal consistency, or test–retest stability.

Question 46Psychological inquiry and research methods

A first study (n = 25) reports a mean difference of 6.0 points with a 95% confidence interval of 1.0 to 11.0. A replication (n = 400) reports the same mean difference of 6.0 with a 95% confidence interval of 4.5 to 7.5. Which conclusion is best supported?

  1. The replication has a larger effect size than the first study.
  2. The replication estimates the effect more precisely. Correct answer.
  3. The first study's result must be a false positive.
  4. The replication proves the effect generalises to all populations.

Explanation

A larger sample gives a narrower confidence interval around the same point estimate, so the replication estimates the effect more precisely. A narrower interval does not mean the effect size is larger, that the first result is necessarily false, or that findings generalise to every population.

Question 47Psychological inquiry and research methods

In a within-subjects experiment, each participant completes a stressful task after both silence and background noise. Half do silence first; half do noise first. What is the main purpose of this procedure?

  1. To balance order effects across the two conditions Correct answer.
  2. To increase the representativeness of the sample
  3. To ensure the researcher remains blind to condition
  4. To eliminate individual differences between participants

Explanation

Counterbalancing distributes order effects-such as practice, fatigue, or carryover-across conditions so they are not confounded with the manipulated variable. A within-subjects design already compares each person with themselves, and counterbalancing does not improve sampling or guarantee blinding.

Question 48Psychological inquiry and research methods

A researcher studying workplace belonging collects interview accounts, observes team meetings, and analyses internal newsletters. She then compares the themes across these sources. This practice primarily strengthens which aspect of qualitative research?

  1. Internal consistency of the interview schedule
  2. Statistical power to detect an effect
  3. Credibility of the interpretation through triangulation Correct answer.
  4. Test–retest reliability of the observation checklist

Explanation

Triangulation compares multiple sources or methods to see whether interpretations converge, which strengthens the credibility of qualitative findings. It does not increase statistical power, establish item internal consistency, or provide test–retest reliability for an observation checklist.

Question 49Psychological inquiry and research methods

In a 2 × 2 experiment, factor A is feedback (positive vs negative) and factor B is task difficulty (easy vs hard). The ANOVA shows a significant interaction and no significant main effects. Which description is most accurate?

  1. Feedback improves performance by the same amount at both difficulty levels.
  2. The interaction shows that random assignment was not used in the experiment.
  3. Task difficulty matters only under positive feedback, and feedback also has a main effect.
  4. Feedback's effect varies with task difficulty, despite no overall main effects. Correct answer.

Explanation

An interaction means the effect of one factor changes across levels of the other, and it can be significant even when neither factor shows a consistent overall main effect. Main effects describe marginal differences, and interactions are unrelated to whether random assignment was used.

Question 50Psychological inquiry and research methods

A school identifies students with the lowest 10% of reading scores and gives them a new tutoring programme. Their mean score rises substantially on the retest. The researcher concludes the programme caused the improvement. Which alternative explanation is most serious?

  1. Regression to the mean: extreme scores drift toward the average on retest Correct answer.
  2. Demand characteristics, because students knew they were selected
  3. Random sampling error, because the lowest-scoring students were not randomly selected from the population
  4. Ceiling effects, because low scorers had little room to improve

Explanation

Selecting participants because they are extreme on a measure creates regression to the mean: on retesting, their scores tend to be less extreme even without treatment. Demand characteristics and sampling error are possible issues, but they do not explain the specific retest drift as directly, and ceiling effects cannot explain improvement among low scorers.