NZ Scholarship Psychology key terms

Operationalisation is the process of defining an abstract variable in concrete, observable, and measurable terms so that a study can be carried out and replicated by others.

Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of a measurement or set of results when it is repeated across occasions, raters, or equivalent items; high reliability produces similar scores under similar conditions.

Validity is the extent to which a measurement or study measures or explains what it claims to, and whether the conclusions drawn are well supported by the evidence.

Internal validity is the degree to which a study supports a causal claim by ruling out plausible alternative explanations, such as confounding variables, selection differences, or measurement artefacts.

External validity is the extent to which findings from a study can be generalised to other people, settings, times, and situations beyond the original sample and procedure.

Sampling bias occurs when the method of selecting participants systematically produces a sample that is not representative of the target population, limiting generalisability.

Random allocation is assigning participants to experimental conditions by chance, so groups are more likely to be comparable and systematic differences are reduced.

A confounding variable is an extraneous factor that is associated with both the independent variable and the dependent variable, providing a plausible alternative explanation for an observed effect.

Demand characteristics are cues in a study that may lead participants to guess the researcher's purpose or expected response and alter their behaviour accordingly.

Correlation is a statistical relationship in which changes in one variable are associated with changes in another; it does not by itself establish that one variable causes the other.

Effect size is a quantitative measure of the strength of a relationship or the size of a difference between groups, expressed on a scale that is comparable across studies.

Triangulation is the use of multiple methods, data sources, researchers, or theoretical perspectives to examine the same phenomenon, strengthening the credibility of conclusions.

Thematic analysis is a qualitative method for identifying, analysing, and reporting recurring patterns or themes across data such as interview transcripts, while acknowledging the researcher's interpretive role.

Peer review is the process in which independent experts evaluate a research report before publication, checking its quality, clarity, and contribution to knowledge.

Classical conditioning is a learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a biologically significant stimulus and eventually elicits a conditioned response on its own.

Operant conditioning is learning in which the consequences of behaviour change the likelihood that the behaviour will recur; reinforcement increases behaviour, while punishment usually decreases it.

Social learning theory proposes that people learn by observing models and the consequences of their actions, with attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation influencing whether learning is performed.

Cognitive dissonance is the psychological discomfort experienced when a person holds conflicting cognitions, such as beliefs, attitudes, or behaviours, which motivates attempts to reduce the inconsistency.

Working memory is a limited-capacity cognitive system that temporarily holds and manipulates information for tasks such as reasoning, comprehension, and learning.

Conformity is the tendency to change one's behaviour or stated beliefs to match the norms or expectations of a group, especially when the group is valued or unanimous.

Obedience is complying with a direct order or instruction from an authority figure, even when the requested action conflicts with personal values or usual behaviour.

The bystander effect is the finding that people are less likely to offer help in an emergency when other people are present, partly because responsibility is diffused across the group.

Learned helplessness is a pattern in which repeated exposure to uncontrollable negative events leads a person or animal to become passive, even when later escape or control is possible.

Stereotype threat is the apprehension that one's performance may confirm a negative stereotype about one's social group, which can impair performance and increase anxiety.

Cognitive behavioural therapy is a structured, goal-oriented treatment that helps clients identify and change unhelpful thoughts and behaviours that maintain psychological distress.

Systematic desensitisation is a behavioural treatment in which a person gradually confronts a feared stimulus while using relaxation techniques, aiming to replace anxiety with calm.

The biopsychosocial model explains health and behaviour through interacting biological, psychological, and social factors rather than reducing them to a single cause.

Neuroplasticity is the brain's capacity to reorganise its connections and functions in response to experience, learning, development, or injury, supporting adaptation across the lifespan.

Attachment is an enduring emotional bond between a child and caregiver that shapes expectations about safety and relationships, influencing later social and emotional development.

Informed consent means giving participants adequate information about a study, ensuring they understand it, and obtaining their voluntary agreement before participation, with the option to withdraw.

Deception involves deliberately misleading participants about the purpose or procedures of research; it requires strong justification, minimal harm, and thorough debriefing.

Debriefing is the post-study process of explaining the true purpose and methods, correcting misconceptions, and checking on participants' wellbeing after their involvement.

Confidentiality is the ethical obligation to protect participants' identities and data from unauthorised access or disclosure, usually by anonymising information and securing records.

The right to withdraw means participants may leave a study at any time and, where possible, have their data removed without penalty or loss of entitlements.

Protection from harm requires researchers to minimise physical and psychological risks, ensure benefits justify risks, and provide support if distress occurs.

An ethics committee is an independent body that reviews research proposals to ensure they meet ethical standards before data collection begins, including risk and consent procedures.

Cultural safety is a practice that examines power relationships and requires professionals to respect a person's cultural identity, beliefs, and values so that services feel safe and appropriate.

A dual relationship exists when a psychologist has both a professional relationship and another significant relationship with a person, creating risks of conflict of interest, exploitation, or impaired judgement.

Beneficence is the obligation to promote welfare, while non-maleficence is the obligation to avoid causing harm; together they require weighing benefits against risks.

Justice in research and practice requires fair treatment, equitable access to benefits, and fair distribution of burdens, including careful selection of participants and inclusive practices.