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Praxis Sociology practice questions

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Question 1Introduction to Sociology

Auguste Comte is credited with coining the term "sociology." In his framework, what did he call the study of social stability and order?

  1. Social dynamics
  2. Verstehen
  3. Positivism
  4. Social statics Correct answer.

Explanation

Comte divided sociology into social statics, the study of order and stability, and social dynamics, the study of change and progress. Positivism was his broader epistemological stance, and verstehen is Weber's later interpretive method.

Question 2Introduction to Sociology

A researcher argues that the economy shapes law, education, and family life. This claim is most consistent with which theoretical perspective?

  1. Symbolic interactionism
  2. Conflict theory Correct answer.
  3. Structural functionalism
  4. Exchange theory

Explanation

Conflict theory treats institutions as arenas shaped by material and power relations, so the economy's influence on other institutions fits its core premise. Functionalism instead stresses interdependence and shared norms, and interactionism focuses on face-to-face meaning-making.

Question 3Introduction to Sociology

In sociological research, what does the term "operationalization" refer to?

  1. Reviewing prior studies before collecting data
  2. Specifying how a concept will be measured in a study Correct answer.
  3. Ensuring that participants consent to participate
  4. Selecting a random sample from a sampling frame

Explanation

Operationalization is the process of translating an abstract concept, such as social class, into concrete, measurable indicators. Sampling, literature review, and informed consent are separate research procedures.

Question 4Introduction to Sociology

Which of the following best illustrates the sociological imagination as C. Wright Mills described it?

  1. Predicting election results from a representative survey sample
  2. Explaining a friend's behavior by appealing to that friend's personality
  3. Describing a city's population using census statistics alone
  4. Connecting a person's unemployment to shifts in the national labor market Correct answer.

Explanation

Mills's sociological imagination links personal troubles to public issues and broader social structure. Tying individual unemployment to labor-market change demonstrates that connection between biography and history.

Question 5Introduction to Sociology

A sociologist defines a concept so that different researchers could measure it the same way in repeated studies. This practice primarily supports which goal of research?

  1. Reflexivity
  2. Validity
  3. Reliability Correct answer.
  4. Generalizability

Explanation

Reliability concerns consistency of measurement across researchers and occasions, which is exactly what a shared, precise definition supports. Validity concerns whether the measure captures the intended concept, and generalizability concerns extending findings beyond the sample.

Question 6Introduction to Sociology

Which statement accurately distinguishes a norm from a value in sociological usage?

  1. A norm is a belief about what is desirable, while a value is a rule about behavior
  2. A norm is a shared rule about behavior, while a value is a shared belief about what is desirable Correct answer.
  3. A norm applies only to formal law, while a value applies only to religion
  4. A norm is held by individuals, while a value is enforced only by the state

Explanation

Values are shared conceptions of what is good or desirable, and norms are expectations or rules that specify appropriate behavior. Values can underpin norms, but the two concepts are analytically distinct.

Question 7Introduction to Sociology

A student is punished by classmates with gossip and exclusion after violating a dress convention. Which concept best describes this sanction?

  1. Informal social control Correct answer.
  2. Legal sanction
  3. Formal social control
  4. Deviance amplification

Explanation

Informal social control operates through everyday reactions such as gossip, ridicule, and exclusion rather than official agents. Formal and legal sanctions come from authorized bodies such as schools, police, or courts.

Question 8Introduction to Sociology

According to Emile Durkheim's classic study, what did he conclude about suicide rates?

  1. They are unrelated to any measurable social factor
  2. They reflect the degree of social integration and regulation in a group Correct answer.
  3. They rise uniformly as societies become wealthier
  4. They are determined mainly by individual genetic predisposition

Explanation

Durkheim treated suicide rates as social facts and linked them to levels of integration and regulation, producing his egoistic, altruistic, anomic, and fatalistic types. This demonstrated that a seemingly private act has social patterning.

Question 9Introduction to Sociology

A sociologist studies how two people negotiate the meaning of a shared handshake in a job interview. Which perspective most directly guides this analysis?

  1. Conflict theory
  2. Historical materialism
  3. Structural functionalism
  4. Symbolic interactionism Correct answer.

Explanation

Symbolic interactionism focuses on how people interpret symbols and construct meaning in face-to-face situations. Functionalism and conflict theory operate at the level of whole social systems and institutions.

Question 10Introduction to Sociology

What distinguishes a random sample from a nonrandom sample in survey research?

  1. A random sample avoids the need for a sampling frame
  2. A random sample guarantees that results are valid
  3. A random sample is always larger than a nonrandom sample
  4. A random sample gives each unit in the population a known chance of selection Correct answer.

Explanation

Probability sampling gives population units a known, nonzero chance of selection, which supports statistical inference. Size, validity, and the absence of a sampling frame are separate matters.

Question 11Introduction to Sociology

A researcher spends two years observing a hospital staff without intervening in their work. Which method is being used?

  1. Survey research
  2. Nonparticipant observation Correct answer.
  3. Secondary data analysis
  4. Experimental design

Explanation

Nonparticipant observation involves watching a setting without taking part in its activities. Surveys, secondary analysis, and experiments rely on questionnaires, existing data, or manipulated conditions rather than direct unobtrusive watching.

Question 12Introduction to Sociology

Which concept refers to the process by which individuals learn the values and behaviors appropriate to their society?

  1. Differentiation
  2. Stratification
  3. Rationalization
  4. Socialization Correct answer.

Explanation

Socialization is the lifelong process through which people internalize norms, values, and skills needed for social participation. Stratification concerns ranked inequality, differentiation concerns specialization, and rationalization concerns efficiency-based organization.

Question 13Introduction to Sociology

A child learns gendered expectations primarily from parents and siblings at home. Which agent of socialization does this describe?

  1. The family Correct answer.
  2. The mass media
  3. The workplace
  4. The peer group

Explanation

The family is conventionally treated as the primary agent of socialization, transmitting early norms and identities. Peer groups, media, and workplaces are later or secondary agents.

Question 14Introduction to Sociology

Which of the following best describes achieved status?

  1. A position obtained through effort, choice, or accomplishment Correct answer.
  2. A position held only within a total institution
  3. A position defined solely by legal statute
  4. A position assigned at birth and difficult to change

Explanation

Achieved status is acquired through action or merit, such as becoming a nurse or a parent, in contrast to ascribed status. Ascribed statuses are assigned, often at birth, without regard to effort.

Question 15Introduction to Sociology

A society's most important positions are filled by the most qualified people, and unequal rewards motivate people to compete for them. Which theoretical position does this summarize?

  1. The functionalist view of stratification Correct answer.
  2. The symbolic interactionist view of stratification
  3. The conflict view of stratification
  4. The exchange view of stratification

Explanation

The Davis-Moore functionalist argument holds that stratification is necessary because important roles require talent and training that unequal rewards attract. Conflict theorists instead see stratification as reproducing advantage for dominant groups.

Question 16Introduction to Sociology

A person's position in a stratification system is measured using income, occupational prestige, and education. This composite is best described as:

  1. Social mobility
  2. Status inconsistency
  3. Socioeconomic status Correct answer.
  4. Cultural capital

Explanation

Socioeconomic status combines economic and prestige indicators such as income, occupation, and education. Mobility refers to movement between positions, cultural capital to culturally valued competencies, and status inconsistency to mismatched ranks.

Question 17Introduction to Sociology

What is the difference between sex and gender as sociologists typically use the terms?

  1. Sex refers to biological characteristics, while gender refers to socially constructed expectations and identities Correct answer.
  2. Sex refers to social roles, while gender refers to chromosomal makeup
  3. Sex is learned, while gender is fixed at birth
  4. Sex applies only to humans, while gender applies only to animals

Explanation

Sociologists distinguish biological sex characteristics from gender, which is socially constructed through roles, identities, and expectations. Treating gender as learned and variable is central to the sociological approach.

Question 18Introduction to Sociology

A company's hiring criteria appear neutral, yet they consistently disadvantage candidates from one racial group. This pattern is best described as:

  1. Cultural relativism
  2. Individual prejudice
  3. Institutional discrimination Correct answer.
  4. Ascribed status

Explanation

Institutional discrimination refers to practices embedded in organizational rules that produce unequal outcomes even without explicit bias. Prejudice is an individual attitude, and the other options are unrelated concepts.

Question 19Introduction to Sociology

Which statement best captures the sociological concept of a minority group?

  1. A group that has no distinct cultural identity
  2. A group defined strictly by national origin
  3. A group that experiences unequal treatment and holds less power, regardless of its numerical size Correct answer.
  4. A group that is always smaller in number than the rest of the population

Explanation

In sociology, minority status concerns relative power and unequal treatment rather than sheer numbers, so a numerically large group can still be a minority. Numerical size, national origin, and cultural distinctiveness do not by themselves define the concept.

Question 20Introduction to Sociology

A social movement seeks to block a proposed policy and restore what members see as traditional arrangements. This movement is best classified as:

  1. An expressive movement
  2. A resistance movement Correct answer.
  3. An alternative movement
  4. A revolutionary movement

Explanation

Resistance movements aim to prevent or reverse change and defend existing or traditional arrangements. Revolutionary movements seek thorough transformation, expressive movements focus on inner change or expression, and alternative movements target limited individual behaviors.

Question 21Introduction to Sociology

A sociologist argues that a behavior becomes deviant mainly because powerful groups define and apply that label to it. This argument draws most directly on:

  1. Strain theory
  2. Differential association theory
  3. Labeling theory Correct answer.
  4. Social control theory

Explanation

Labeling theory holds that deviance is not inherent in an act but results from rules and labels applied by others, especially those with power. Strain, differential association, and control theories explain deviance through blocked goals, learned behavior, or weakened bonds.

Question 22Introduction to Sociology

Two societies have similar total wealth, but one has a much more unequal distribution. Which measure would a sociologist use to describe this difference?

  1. The sex ratio
  2. The dependency ratio
  3. The Gini coefficient Correct answer.
  4. The crude birth rate

Explanation

The Gini coefficient summarizes inequality in a distribution, with higher values indicating greater concentration. Birth rate, dependency ratio, and sex ratio describe demographic composition rather than inequality.

Question 23Introduction to Sociology

Which sequence correctly orders the demographic transition model's typical stages?

  1. High birth rates with low death rates, then both rising, then both falling
  2. High birth and death rates, then falling death rates, then falling birth rates, then low birth and death rates Correct answer.
  3. Falling birth rates first, then falling death rates, then a return to high rates
  4. Low birth and death rates, then rising death rates, then high birth rates, then low rates again

Explanation

The demographic transition begins with high birth and death rates, then death rates fall while birth rates remain high, followed by declining birth rates and finally low rates on both dimensions. Population growth is fastest in the middle stages when the rates diverge.

Question 24Introduction to Sociology

Max Weber identified a process in which efficiency and calculation come to dominate social organization, producing bureaucratic structures. He called this:

  1. Assimilation
  2. Secularization
  3. Rationalization Correct answer.
  4. Urbanization

Explanation

Rationalization, for Weber, is the spread of efficiency-oriented, calculable organization exemplified by bureaucracy. Secularization concerns the decline of religious authority, urbanization the growth of cities, and assimilation the incorporation of groups into a dominant culture.

Question 25Introduction to Sociology

A researcher wants to establish whether a new tutoring program causes higher test scores. Which design is best suited to that causal question?

  1. A content analysis of school documents
  2. An ethnographic field study
  3. A randomized controlled experiment Correct answer.
  4. A cross-sectional survey

Explanation

Random assignment in a controlled experiment allows the researcher to isolate the program's causal effect from other influences. The other designs can reveal associations or meanings but provide weaker grounds for causal inference.

Question 26Introduction to Sociology

Which early sociological thinker is credited with coining the term "sociology" and arguing that society should be studied with the same scientific rigor as the natural world?

  1. W. E. B. Du Bois
  2. Auguste Comte Correct answer.
  3. Karl Marx
  4. Max Weber

Explanation

Comte coined "sociology" and championed a positivist approach in which social phenomena would be examined through systematic observation and comparison rather than speculation. His work helped establish the discipline's claim to scientific status. The other figures contributed major theories but did not originate the term or the positivist program.

Question 27Introduction to Sociology

A sociologist examines how a person's sense of self emerges through interaction, arguing that individuals come to see themselves as others see them. Which theoretical tradition does this emphasis on the self as socially constructed best represent?

  1. Symbolic interactionism Correct answer.
  2. Structural functionalism
  3. Exchange theory
  4. Conflict theory

Explanation

Symbolic interactionism treats the self as a product of social interaction and the interpretation of symbols, including the idea that people imagine how others perceive them. This micro-level tradition focuses on meaning-making in everyday encounters. The other traditions emphasize system needs, inequality, or cost-benefit calculation rather than the negotiated self.

Question 28Introduction to Sociology

A researcher argues that the economy, as the material base of society, shapes the legal and educational systems, which in turn help reproduce existing class relations. Which perspective does this argument reflect?

  1. Symbolic interactionism
  2. Structural functionalism
  3. Conflict theory Correct answer.
  4. Rational choice theory

Explanation

Conflict theory, especially in the Marxist tradition, treats economic arrangements as fundamental and sees institutions such as law and schooling as serving dominant class interests. The claim that superstructural institutions reproduce class relations is a hallmark of this perspective. Functionalism, by contrast, would stress how those institutions contribute to overall stability.

Question 29Introduction to Sociology

Which concept refers to the unintended, often unrecognized consequences of a social institution or practice?

  1. Latent function Correct answer.
  2. Anomie
  3. Manifest function
  4. Dysfunction

Explanation

In functionalist analysis, latent functions are the hidden or unintended consequences of a practice, in contrast to its stated and intended manifest functions. For example, schooling's manifest function is instruction, while a latent function may be forming peer networks or keeping youth occupied. The concept encourages sociologists to look beyond official purposes.

Question 30Introduction to Sociology

A sociologist studies how a shared belief in the supernatural unites a congregation and reinforces collective identity through rituals. Which concept does this analysis illustrate?

  1. Religion as a source of social solidarity Correct answer.
  2. Secularization as inevitable decline
  3. Sects as inherently unstable
  4. Religion as a purely private preference

Explanation

Durkheimian analysis treats religion as a social phenomenon whose core function is to bind members together through shared beliefs and rituals, producing collective identity and moral cohesion. The scenario emphasizes unity and shared practice rather than decline or private belief. This is why sociologists study religion even when they make no claims about its truth.

Question 31Introduction to Sociology

A person is raised in one religious community, later examines its teachings critically, and adopts a different faith as an adult. In sociological terms, this change is best described as:

  1. Resocialization
  2. A conversion involving re-socialization into a new faith Correct answer.
  3. Religious socialization
  4. Anticipatory socialization

Explanation

Conversion can be analyzed as a form of resocialization in which an individual adopts a new belief system and identity, often with new networks and practices. It contrasts with primary socialization, which is the initial, largely uncritical acquisition of a tradition. The adult critical evaluation and adoption of a new faith marks the shift.

Question 32Introduction to Sociology

Which statement best describes the sociological concept of culture?

  1. Culture is limited to the official laws enforced by a government.
  2. Culture is the shared beliefs, values, norms, and material objects transmitted across generations. Correct answer.
  3. Culture consists only of the fine arts and formal education a person acquires.
  4. Culture is the genetic inheritance that determines personality traits.

Explanation

Sociologists use culture broadly to mean the shared symbolic and material heritage of a group, including beliefs, values, norms, language, and artifacts. It is learned and transmitted rather than inherited biologically. Narrow definitions limited to the arts or to law miss most of what the concept covers.

Question 33Introduction to Sociology

A traveler moves to a country where direct eye contact with elders is considered disrespectful and gradually adopts that expectation. Which process does this illustrate?

  1. Cultural lag
  2. Ethnocentrism
  3. Socialization into a new cultural context Correct answer.
  4. Cultural relativism

Explanation

Adopting the norms of a new cultural setting through learning and interaction is socialization into that context, sometimes analyzed as resocialization. The traveler internalizes a norm that differs from their prior expectations. This is a process of learning, not a judgment about which culture is superior.

Question 34Introduction to Sociology

Which of the following is the clearest example of a sociological counterculture?

  1. A neighborhood association that collects dues for street repairs
  2. A group that rejects mainstream values and organizes its life around alternative beliefs and practices Correct answer.
  3. A family that observes national holidays each year
  4. A professional association that lobbies for licensing standards

Explanation

A counterculture is a subculture whose values and norms stand in opposition to those of the dominant culture, often expressed through alternative lifestyles or politics. The key feature is rejection of mainstream values, not simply being a smaller group. Associations that work within mainstream institutions are not countercultures.

Question 35Introduction to Sociology

Which statement accurately describes the sociological concept of the looking-glass self?

  1. People form their self-image based on how they believe others perceive and judge them. Correct answer.
  2. People's self-image is fixed at birth and does not change through interaction.
  3. People inherit their self-image from their parents' social class position.
  4. People develop a self-image only through formal schooling.

Explanation

The looking-glass self describes the process by which individuals imagine how others see them, interpret those imagined judgments, and develop a self-concept accordingly. It is a social and interactional process rather than a biological or purely institutional one. The concept illustrates how the self is continually shaped by perceived reactions of others.

Question 36Introduction to Sociology

A student who has never attended college begins to adopt the study habits and vocabulary of college students in preparation for entering university. This behavior is best described as:

  1. Resocialization
  2. Primary socialization
  3. Secondary deviance
  4. Anticipatory socialization Correct answer.

Explanation

Anticipatory socialization is the process of adopting the norms and behaviors of a group one hopes to join. The student rehearses the role before formally entering it. Resocialization, by contrast, involves replacing previously internalized norms after entering a new setting.

Question 37Introduction to Sociology

Which statement best distinguishes a primary group from a secondary group?

  1. Primary groups exist only in rural areas, while secondary groups exist only in cities.
  2. Primary groups are always formal organizations with written rules, while secondary groups are informal.
  3. Primary groups are large and impersonal, while secondary groups are small and emotionally close.
  4. Primary groups involve close, enduring, personal ties, while secondary groups are larger and more impersonal and goal-oriented. Correct answer.

Explanation

Primary groups, such as families and close friends, are characterized by intimate, enduring, and personal relationships. Secondary groups are larger, more impersonal, and organized around specific goals or tasks. The distinction concerns the quality of relationships rather than size of community or formality alone.

Question 38Introduction to Sociology

A worker in a large bureaucracy follows standardized procedures and refers decisions upward according to a written chain of command. Which characteristic of bureaucracy does this behavior reflect?

  1. Charismatic authority
  2. Primary group cohesion
  3. Informal social networks
  4. Hierarchy of authority and formal rules Correct answer.

Explanation

Bureaucracies are organized around formal rules and a clear hierarchy in which authority and responsibility are specified, so decisions follow established procedures and lines of command. Weber treated these features as part of rational-legal authority. The scenario describes rule-following and upward referral, not personal loyalty or informal ties.

Question 39Introduction to Sociology

A sociologist compares two nations and finds that one has a higher rate of social mobility than the other. Which interpretation is most consistent with sociological research on mobility?

  1. Higher mobility proves that discrimination has been eliminated in that nation.
  2. The nation with higher mobility necessarily has a smaller gap between rich and poor.
  3. Higher mobility means that individuals' class origins are less predictive of their class destinations. Correct answer.
  4. Higher mobility means that everyone in the nation has the same income.

Explanation

Social mobility measures the extent to which people's class positions differ from those of their parents, so higher mobility means class origins predict destinations less strongly. It does not imply equality of income or the absence of discrimination. Mobility and inequality are related but conceptually distinct dimensions of stratification.

Question 40Introduction to Sociology

A sociologist studying how a new communication technology reshapes everyday social interaction would most likely use which approach?

  1. Analyzing how individuals interpret and adapt to the technology in their daily routines Correct answer.
  2. Ignoring the technology because only economic factors matter
  3. Treating the technology as irrelevant to social structure
  4. Assuming the technology determines social behavior regardless of how people use it

Explanation

A sociological approach to technology emphasizes how people interpret, adopt, and adapt technological tools within existing social relationships, rather than assuming technology mechanically determines behavior. This reflects the interaction between social structure and human agency. Treating technology as irrelevant or as an all-powerful force ignores this interplay.

Question 41Research Methods and Data Analysis

A sociologist wants to know whether a new tutoring program raises test scores, and randomly assigns students to either the program or a control group. Which claim can this design best support?

  1. An ethnographic account of how students experience tutoring
  2. A descriptive claim about the national distribution of test scores
  3. A causal claim about the program's effect on test scores Correct answer.
  4. A correlational claim linking tutoring to family income

Explanation

Random assignment to treatment and control conditions is the defining feature of a true experiment, and it supports causal inference because the groups are probabilistically equivalent before treatment. Descriptive and ethnographic goals require different designs, such as surveys or fieldwork.

Question 42Research Methods and Data Analysis

In a survey, a respondent's answer to the question 'How satisfied are you with your neighborhood?' is recorded on a 1-to-5 scale. At the level of measurement, this variable is best classified as:

  1. Ordinal Correct answer.
  2. Nominal
  3. Ratio
  4. Interval

Explanation

Likert-style satisfaction ratings rank respondents in order, but the distances between adjacent categories cannot be assumed equal, which makes the variable ordinal. Nominal variables lack order, interval variables have equal distances, and ratio variables have a true zero.

Question 43Research Methods and Data Analysis

A researcher studying undocumented workers gains access to a community and spends two years observing daily life while taking detailed field notes. This approach is best described as:

  1. A closed-ended survey
  2. A laboratory experiment
  3. A secondary data analysis
  4. Ethnographic participant observation Correct answer.

Explanation

Long-term immersion in a setting with systematic field notes is the hallmark of ethnographic participant observation, which aims at thick description of meaning and social process. Surveys, experiments, and secondary analysis do not involve sustained firsthand immersion.

Question 44Research Methods and Data Analysis

A researcher draws a sample by first listing every school in a district and then randomly selecting 20 schools, after which every teacher in those schools is surveyed. Which sampling technique is being used?

  1. Cluster sampling Correct answer.
  2. Snowball sampling
  3. Quota sampling
  4. Simple random sampling of teachers

Explanation

Cluster sampling randomly selects groups (schools) and then includes members of those groups, which is efficient when a full list of individuals is unavailable. Simple random sampling would select teachers directly from a complete teacher roster.

Question 45Research Methods and Data Analysis

A researcher who repeats a study with the same measurement instrument and obtains very similar results across occasions has demonstrated high:

  1. External validity
  2. Construct validity
  3. Reliability Correct answer.
  4. Validity

Explanation

Reliability refers to the consistency or stability of measurement across repeated administrations. Validity concerns whether the instrument measures the intended concept, which is a separate question from consistency.

Question 46Research Methods and Data Analysis

Which statement correctly describes the relationship between a population and a sample in survey research?

  1. The population is the full set of cases of interest, and the sample is a subset drawn from it Correct answer.
  2. A sample parameter is estimated by computing a population statistic
  3. The population is always smaller than the sample
  4. The sample is the entire set of cases the researcher wants to describe

Explanation

The population is the complete set of cases a researcher wants to describe, while the sample is the subset actually observed. Statistics are computed from samples to estimate population parameters, not the reverse.

Question 47Research Methods and Data Analysis

A study reports that the mean income of a sample is $42,000 with a 95% confidence interval of $40,000 to $44,000. Which interpretation of the interval is most defensible?

  1. There is a 95% chance that the sample mean equals the population mean
  2. 95% of individuals in the population earn between $40,000 and $44,000
  3. If the study were repeated many times, about 95% of similarly constructed intervals would contain the true population mean Correct answer.
  4. The population mean is guaranteed to lie between $40,000 and $44,000

Explanation

A confidence interval is a statement about the long-run behavior of the estimation procedure: repeated samples would produce intervals that capture the true parameter about 95% of the time. It is not a probability statement about individual incomes or a guarantee about any single interval.

Question 48Research Methods and Data Analysis

A researcher codes open-ended interview transcripts by identifying recurring themes and building categories from the data rather than applying predetermined categories. This practice is characteristic of:

  1. Hypothesis testing with inferential statistics
  2. Deductive coding from an existing theory
  3. Content analysis using a fixed codebook
  4. Grounded theory coding Correct answer.

Explanation

Grounded theory builds categories inductively from the data through open and focused coding rather than imposing a prior scheme. Deductive and fixed-codebook approaches begin with predetermined categories instead.

Question 49Research Methods and Data Analysis

A researcher studying charitable giving finds that respondents who report attending religious services weekly also report donating more, but suspects that social desirability shapes both reports. Which concern is being raised?

  1. A threat to measurement validity Correct answer.
  2. A threat to statistical power
  3. A violation of random assignment
  4. A problem of sampling frame coverage

Explanation

Social desirability bias means respondents overreport behaviors seen as virtuous, so the measures may not accurately capture actual attendance and giving. This is a measurement validity problem rather than a matter of power, coverage, or assignment.

Question 50Research Methods and Data Analysis

A researcher wants to compare average hours of housework between women and men and reports a difference significant at p < .05. What does this p-value indicate?

  1. The proportion of variance explained by gender
  2. The probability of observing a difference at least this large if the null hypothesis were true Correct answer.
  3. The probability that the result will replicate in a new sample
  4. The probability that the null hypothesis is true

Explanation

A p-value is the probability of obtaining a result at least as extreme as the observed one, assuming the null hypothesis is true. It is not the probability that the null is true, nor a replication probability, nor an effect-size measure.