Change and the Organisation
What you must understand
Organisational change examines the whole system: strategy, structure, culture, processes and people. Know the distinction between incremental and transformational change, planned and emergent change, and continuous versus episodic change. Learn Kotter's eight steps, Lewin's unfreeze–change–refreeze at organisation level, McKinsey 7S (strategy, structure, systems, shared values, style, staff, skills), Burke–Litwin, Nadler–Tushman congruence, the cultural web, Schein's three levels of culture (artefacts, espoused values, basic assumptions), Morgan's metaphors and the change kaleidoscope. Beckhard and Harris's change equation (D × V × F > R) is a useful test of whether change will happen.
Traps
Do not treat culture as visible artefacts only; basic assumptions drive behaviour. Do not use Kotter as a rigid linear checklist in a complex, emergent situation. Hard 7S elements are easy to change; soft elements - style, staff, skills, shared values - often determine success. A common error is confusing climate with culture, or planned change with emergent change. Models are lenses, not recipes.
Worked example
A firm wants 'one team' collaboration while the reward system still pays individual bonuses. The cultural web shows the contradiction: stories and rituals celebrate lone heroes, and power sits with siloed leaders. Realigning rewards, stories and leadership behaviour is more likely to shift the culture than a values poster.