UKOM Sp.F.M cheat sheet

Management functions: planning, organizing, staffing, directing, controlling - each maps to a distinct set of managerial activities and measurable outputs.

Leadership styles: autocratic (fast, low buy-in), democratic (slower, higher commitment), laissez-faire (effective only with expert, self-directed staff), transformational (vision-driven change).

Span of control: narrow spans suit complex, high-risk work such as sterile compounding; wide spans suit routine, standardized tasks.

SMART objectives: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound; vague goals cannot be monitored or evaluated.

Delegation rule: authority and accountability transfer, but final responsibility to the license holder does not.

Change management sequence: unfreeze, change, refreeze; skipping unfreezing produces relapse to prior practice.

Key performance indicators should be few, linked to strategy, and balanced across clinical quality, safety, finance, and workforce.

Conflict modes per Thomas-Kilmann: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, accommodating; collaborating suits interdependent pharmacy teams.

Gross margin = revenue − cost of goods sold; gross margin % = gross margin ÷ revenue × 100.

Markup is calculated on cost; margin is calculated on selling price - markup % always exceeds the equivalent margin %.

Break-even volume = fixed costs ÷ (unit price − unit variable cost); break-even revenue = fixed costs ÷ contribution margin ratio.

Contribution margin per unit = selling price − variable cost per unit; it funds fixed costs first, then profit.

Cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) = (cost A − cost B) ÷ (effect A − effect B); compare against an explicit willingness-to-pay threshold.

Financing models: out-of-pocket, social health insurance, private insurance, tax-funded national health service; each shifts risk differently.

Inventory carrying cost typically bundles capital cost, storage, insurance, obsolescence, and shrinkage; it is often understated.

Sunk costs are irrelevant to forward decisions; incremental (marginal) cost and benefit drive the correct choice.

Business plan core sections: executive summary, market analysis, operations, marketing, management, financial projections, risk assessment.

Market sizing: TAM (total addressable), SAM (serviceable addressable), SOM (serviceable obtainable) - projections should rest on SOM, not TAM.

Cash flow statement differs from profit and loss: it tracks timing of cash in and out, and timing kills otherwise profitable ventures.

Payback period = initial investment ÷ annual net cash inflow; shorter is preferred but ignores cash flows after payback.

Net present value discounts future cash flows at the cost of capital; NPV > 0 signals value creation, and it is preferred over IRR for ranking.

SWOT items should be external (opportunities, threats) versus internal (strengths, weaknesses); misclassification is a common planning error.

Location decision criteria: catchment population, prescriber density, competitor saturation, rent per square metre, accessibility, and parking.

Pricing strategy options: cost-plus, value-based, competitive, and penetration - penetration pricing trades margin for volume and share.

Job analysis produces the job description (tasks, duties) and person specification (qualifications, competencies); recruitment flows from both.

Competency frameworks separate technical competencies (dispensing accuracy, clinical knowledge) from behavioral ones (communication, teamwork).

Workforce planning formula: required full-time equivalents = total workload hours ÷ productive hours per FTE.

Absence rate = days lost ÷ (headcount × working days) × 100; a rising rate is an early attrition signal.

Training evaluation per Kirkpatrick: reaction, learning, behavior, results - only the last two demonstrate workplace impact.

Performance appraisal should combine results (objectives) and behaviors (competencies); results-only appraisal rewards the wrong conduct.

Disciplinary process requires documented due process: clear policy, notice of allegations, opportunity to respond, proportionate sanction, appeal.

Turnover cost includes recruitment, induction, lost productivity, and temporary cover - often 50–200% of annual salary for professional roles.

Economic order quantity (EOQ) = √(2DS ÷ H), where D = annual demand, S = ordering cost per order, H = holding cost per unit per year.

Reorder point = (average daily demand × lead time in days) + safety stock.

Safety stock rises with demand variability, lead-time variability, and target service level; it falls when suppliers become reliable.

ABC analysis by annual consumption value: A items are few but high value and need tight control; C items are many and low value and can use simple rules.

FEFO (first-expiry-first-out) governs medicines; FIFO is insufficient because receipt order does not equal expiry order.

Cold chain requires validated storage, continuous temperature monitoring, excursion documentation, and quarantine before disposition decisions.

Procurement cycle: need identification, specification, supplier selection, contracting, ordering, receipt and inspection, payment, and performance review.

Stockout cost includes substitution, delayed therapy, emergency purchases at premium prices, and reputational harm - not just lost sales.

Clinical decision support fires alerts on rules (dose range, interaction, allergy, duplicate therapy); excessive alerts cause alert fatigue and override behavior.

Computerized provider order entry reduces transcription errors but introduces wrong-patient and wrong-dose selection errors.

Barcode medication administration verifies the five rights at the point of administration; workarounds nullify the safety benefit.

Data protection principles: lawful basis, purpose limitation, data minimization, accuracy, storage limitation, integrity and confidentiality, accountability.

Interoperability standards: HL7 for messaging, FHIR for modern application programming interfaces, and standardized terminologies (SNOMED CT, ICD, ATC) for meaning.

System validation follows a lifecycle: user requirements, functional specification, risk assessment, IQ/OQ/PQ testing, and change control.

Telepharmacy requires identity verification, secure communication channels, documented consent, and a defined escalation route to in-person care.

Downtime planning: documented paper fallback procedures, regular drills, and reconciliation of records after system restoration.

Donabedian model: structure (resources), process (what is done), outcome (what results) - measure all three, not outcomes alone.

Plan-Do-Study-Act cycles drive iterative improvement; a single cycle is a test, not proof, so multiple cycles are needed.

Root cause analysis follows the event: secure the scene, gather facts, map causal factors, identify system failures, then design and monitor actions.

Medication error severity scales classify near misses separately from harm events; near-miss reporting is the leading indicator of safety culture.

Ishikawa (fishbone) categories: people, process, equipment, environment, materials, management - used to structure cause analysis.

Control chart interpretation: a run of seven or more points on one side of the mean signals special-cause variation requiring investigation.

Sterile compounding quality requires environmental monitoring, media fill validation, operator qualification, and documented cleaning schedules.

Audit cycle: define standards, collect data, compare against standard, implement change, re-audit to confirm improvement and sustain it.

Ethical principles: beneficence, non-maleficence, autonomy, justice - conflicts between them must be reasoned, not assumed away.

Informed consent requires capacity, adequate disclosure, comprehension, and voluntariness; a signature alone does not prove consent.

Confidentiality may be breached only where law or serious public interest requires it, and disclosure should be minimal and documented.

Professional boundaries: personal or financial relationships with patients create conflicts of interest that must be declared and avoided.

Record retention and record quality: contemporaneous, legible, attributable entries; retrospective alteration of records is misconduct.

Scope of practice: competence plus authorization; working outside competence, even with good intent, is a fitness-to-practice risk.

Duty to report: impaired colleagues, serious safety incidents, and suspected diversion of controlled drugs trigger mandatory escalation.

Pharmacovigilance obligations: report suspected adverse drug reactions through the national scheme, including for vaccines and biologics.

Universal health coverage dimensions: population covered, services covered, and proportion of costs covered - expansion along one axis without the others is incomplete.

Essential medicines list logic: efficacy, safety, comparative cost-effectiveness, and public health need determine inclusion, not brand preference.

Reimbursement mechanisms: cost-plus, reference pricing, tendering, and external price referencing each shift incentive between payer and provider.

Pharmaceutical benefit schemes commonly use copayment tiers, deductibles, and prior authorization to manage expenditure.

National medicines policy pillars: selection, affordability, financing, supply systems, regulation and quality assurance, rational use, and human resources.

Antimicrobial stewardship is a national policy priority: prescribing restrictions, surveillance, and public awareness operate together.

Pharmacist-delivered services (vaccination, smoking cessation, medication review) require an explicit funding pathway to be sustainable.

Health technology assessment informs coverage decisions using clinical effectiveness, cost-effectiveness, budget impact, and equity considerations.

Hospital pharmacy workflow: prescribing, verification, dispensing, administration, and monitoring; each handoff is an error-prone step.

Medication reconciliation at admission, transfer, and discharge prevents unintended discrepancies; it is a process, not a single form.

Unit dose distribution reduces preparation errors and waste compared with bulk ward stock, at higher distribution cost.

Community pharmacy layout: prescription reception, dispensing and checking zone, consultation room, and self-selection area should be physically separated.

Skill-mix design: technicians handle dispensing and stock tasks under supervision; pharmacists focus on clinical review and counseling.

Queue management: reducing waiting time requires matching capacity to arrival patterns, not simply adding staff at peak.

Medication review focuses on indication, effectiveness, safety, adherence, and cost; deprescribing is a legitimate outcome.

Service capacity formula: appointments available = staff hours × utilization ÷ average minutes per appointment.