J-CAT key terms

Describes something unclear or vague, where the meaning, boundary, or attitude is not sharply defined. Used for ambiguous expressions, uncertain answers, and half-hearted commitments. Often carries a nuance of intentional vagueness in Japanese communication.

To prompt or urge someone to act, often gently. Appears in notices and formal writing asking for action, such as urging caution or participation. Distinct from forcing; the nuance is encouraging a response.

To accompany or come together with something, often implying that one thing inevitably brings another. Common in formal writing: 変化に伴う問題, リスクを伴う. Grammatically takes に. Signals a cause-result or simultaneous relationship.

Remarkable or striking, used for noticeable change, growth, or difference. Formal and often written; collocates with 増加, 発展, 変化. Stronger and more objective than すごい, and rarely used in casual conversation.

Means "unconditionally" or "sweeping", and almost always appears with a negative: 一概に言えない (cannot say for sure). Used to reject an overgeneralization. Signals that a claim has exceptions or depends on context.

To expect or anticipate a result, often with calculation. Used in business and planning: 売上を見込む, 需要が見込まれる. Also means to take into account. The noun 見込み appears in set phrases like 見込みがある.

Unavoidable, with no alternative. Appears almost exclusively in the pattern 余儀なくされる (be forced to) and 余儀なくさせる (force someone to). Formal and news-style; describes circumstances that compel an unwanted action.

To base a judgment or plan on something, taking it into account. Frequent in formal discussion: 現状を踏まえて. Also literally "to stand on". The phrase を踏まえた上で means "after considering".

Smooth and without friction, used for communication, operations, and relationships. Collocates with 円滑に進める, 円滑なコミュニケーション. Formal; implies coordination among people rather than physical smoothness.

To grasp or comprehend a situation, facts, or the whole picture. Common in reports: 状況を把握する. Also means physically seizing. The nuance is understanding enough to act, not merely knowing.

Collocation meaning "to exert an influence". Takes に: ～に影響を及ぼす. More formal than 影響を与える and common in academic and news writing. Used for both positive and negative effects.

To keep something in mind while acting or deciding. Formal idiom, often in instructions and proposals: リスクを念頭に置く. Similar to 考慮する but stresses ongoing awareness rather than one-time consideration.

To spur on or accelerate, usually a negative trend. Idiomatic; literally "to put spurs to". Often in news about inflation or decline. Not used for deliberate positive encouragement.

To have a prospect or estimate of when something will be done. Business phrase; 見通しが立つ is similar. 目処 alone means an aim or target. Used when a schedule or solution becomes visible.

Concessive connector: "despite" or "although". Attaches to nouns, na-adjectives, and clauses in plain form. More formal and emphatic than のに. Often signals an unexpected contrast the writer wants to highlight.

Means "cannot help but" or "have no choice but to". Attaches to the ない-stem: せざるを得ない, 行かざるを得ない. Formal and written; expresses a conclusion forced by circumstances. する becomes せざる.

Partial negation: "it is not that...". Denies an inference the listener might draw rather than a simple fact. Often paired with からといって: 高いからといって良いわけではない. Common in passages that correct misunderstandings.

Means "without doing". Attaches to the dictionary form of verbs: 休むことなく. More formal and literary than ないで. Often used in written Japanese to describe continuous action without a break.

Attaches to the masu-stem to mean "as soon as": 到着次第連絡します. Also a noun meaning "depending on": 状況次第. The two uses differ; context and attachment decide. Formal and common in business.

Means "along with" or "as ... changes". Attaches to nouns and dictionary-form verbs: 人口増加に伴って. Formal written connector showing proportional change. Related to the verb 伴う but functions as a grammatical phrase.

Expresses a risk that something undesirable may happen: 崩れるおそれがある. Formal, common in weather and news. Attaches to noun + の or verb dictionary form. Weaker and more objective than かもしれない.

Attaches to the masu-stem to mean "cannot" in a polite, formal refusal: お答えしかねます. It softens refusal in business Japanese. Distinct from かねない, which means "might well do" something bad.

Means "only after" or "not until". Clause A + てはじめて B: 病気になってはじめて健康の大切さを知った. Emphasizes that understanding comes only through the prior experience. Common in reflective writing.

Means "even if not ... at least". Attaches to the ない-form: 毎日とは言わないまでも. Concedes a lower minimum while implying a higher ideal. Formal and often used in requests or expectations.

Means "concerning" or "over" a disputed issue. Attaches to nouns: 遺産をめぐる争い. Implies multiple parties with conflicting positions. More specific than について, which is neutral topic marking.

Means "prior to" an event, often with preparation: 会議に先立って資料を配る. Formal and written; attaches to nouns or verb dictionary form. Similar to 前に but restricted to planned events.

Attaches to the masu-stem to mean "be in the process of": 増えつつある. Formal and written, often in news and reports. Suggests a gradual ongoing change, unlike ている which can be a simple state.

The main point or gist of a passage. Reading questions may ask 要旨を捉える. Distinguished from details and examples. A summary should state the central claim, not repeat every supporting fact.

The author's argument or claim. In Japanese reading questions, the correct answer often restates this in different words. Signals include べきだ, と思う, 重要だ. Distinguish from reported opinions of others.

Demonstrative words such as これ, それ, あれ, この, その that point to something mentioned earlier or later. Reading questions ask what これ refers to. Find the referent in the preceding sentence or clause.

Contrast or concession in discourse, marked by しかし, だが, にもかかわらず. Signals that the following clause reverses expectation. Important for tracking an author's real point, which often follows the contrast.

A concrete example used to support a general claim. In passages, examples are often introduced by たとえば. Reading questions may ask why an example is given: usually to illustrate or justify the preceding assertion.

Paraphrase or restatement. Passages often signal it with つまり, すなわち. Recognizing paraphrase helps match answer choices that use different wording from the text. A key skill for 内容一致 questions.

To take notes while listening. In the listening section, jotting numbers, times, and names helps with questions that require recall. Notes should be brief symbols, not full sentences, so attention stays on the audio.

The speaker's intention or purpose. Listening questions often ask what the speaker really wants to do, such as request, refuse, or confirm. Intonation and final particles like けど or かな are clues.

A request. In dialogue, requests appear as ～てもらえますか, ～てほしい, or お願いします. Listening tasks ask what was requested and whether the listener agreed. Politeness level signals the relationship between speakers.

A refusal or decline. In Japanese, refusals are often indirect: ちょっと難しいですね, 考えておきます. Listening questions test whether the request was accepted. Indirect refusals are a common trap.

Asking the speaker to repeat or clarify. Phrases include すみません、もう一度お願いします and 何とおっしゃいましたか. In listening tasks, a hearer's clarification request may repeat key information you need.

The key point or main idea of a spoken message. Listening questions may ask for 要点をまとめる. Focus on the conclusion and the action requested, not on filler such as greetings or small talk.